感知与洞察：研究实践中的现象学社会学

本文认为,现象学社会学对定性研究实践的最重要的意义在于,由现象学的内涵所规定而强调的一种积极的认知态度。而这种积极的认知态度一旦被贯彻,就会给我们的研究乃至学生培养和训练带来一种革命性的改变。这样一种认知在研究实践中经由感知与洞察得以完成,从而获得对现象的意义的相对深刻与准确的理解和解释,由此也给出了现象学社会学将“日常生活”作为其主要研究领域的原因：日常生活即是“生活世界”的中心,而由社会行动者（包括他们形成的主体间际）及其生活于其中的环境所组成的生活世界在某种程度上可以称之为一个意义的世界。     

On the structure of dialectical reasoning in the social and policy sciences

This paper extends the work of Toulmin on argumentation and Rescher on modal logic by combining them into a single framework. The result is a powerful tool for analyzing the structure and dynamics of arguments. In particular, it allows us to construct a novel model of dialectical reasoning. The model is capable of handling both qualitative and quantitative aspects of dialectical reasoning. The qualitative aspect pertains to the fact that there is a dramatic shift in the structure of an argument during a dialectic. The quantitative aspect pertains to the fact that there is a radical shift in the underlying axiomatic structure which governs the credibilities of the components of the argument.     

Modeling stereotypes and negative self‐stereotypes as a function of interactions among groups with power asymmetries

Stereotypes is one of the most researched topics in social psychology. Within this context, negative self‐stereotypes pose a particular challenge for theories. In the current work, we propose a model that suggests that negative self‐stereotypes can theoretically be accounted for by the need to communicate in a social system made up by groups with unequal power. Because our theory is dynamic, probabilistic, and interactionist, we use a computational simulation technique to show that the proposed model is able to reproduce the phenomenon of interest, to provide novel accounts of related phenomena, and to suggest novel empirical predictions. We describe our computational model, our variables' dynamic behavior and interactions, and link our analyses to the literature on stereotypes and self‐stereotypes, the stability of stereotypes (in particular, gender and racial stereotypes), the effects of power asymmetries, and the effects of intergroup contact.     

Explaining Different Paths in Social Health Insurance Countries – Health System Change and Cross‐border Lesson‐drawing between Germany,Austria and the Netherlands

The issues of ‘policy diffusion’ or ‘policy transfer’ and ‘mutual learning’ have become important topics in comparative research on social policy and health systems. In current debates on explaining reform in ‘Bismarckian’ social (health) insurance systems, however, these issues have been neglected. In particular, the role of ‘negative lesson‐drawing’ in the sense of avoiding mistakes of others has not often been considered. This article compares health system change in Germany, Austria and the Netherlands, three countries with health systems of the social insurance type. In contrast to the existing literature, our analysis stresses that these countries have taken different reform paths since the 1990s. By applying a most similar systems design, we analyze how far cross‐border lesson‐drawing has contributed to health system divergence in the three countries. The empirical basis of the analysis is semi‐structured qualitative expert interviews, a method appropriate for tracing processes of lesson‐drawing. We argue that in order to fully understand the diverging reform trajectories, we need to take into account how political decision‐makers refer to (negative) experiences of other countries. Generally, national driving forces for health system change were at the heart of many crucial reforms during the period studied. Nevertheless, we claim that it was the German bad practice role model that kept the reform paths of Austria and Germany apart in the Austrian health reform discussion between 2000 and 2005.     

Modeling Role Enactment: Linking Role Theory and Social Cognition

In our dynamic social world, a premium is placed on the individual's ability to innovate and to change ( Giddens 1984 ; Sewell 1992 ; Simmel 1955 ). Yet traditional role theory has difficulty accounting for innovation, leaving unanswered the question of how individual level negotiations affect social‐structural processes (see Callero 1994 ). This study addresses this tension by linking role theory with social cognition. By positioning behavior and cognition as two interrelated continuums, I stretch the meaning of role enactment to include 4 role typologies. I utilize these typologies as a heuristic to chart the processes through which individuals adapt to and affect a role performance over time. I conclude by outlining how sociocognitive role typologies aid social researchers in accounting for individual efficacy in response to social‐structural situations.     

The division of child care among couples with young children: An empowerment model

In this article, we present a qualitative analysis of couples’ child care arrangements using an empowerment model. Data are taken from gender-segregated focus group interviews with eight married, co-residential couples parenting young children. We analyze this data using an empowerment model that focuses on individuals’ experiences recognizing and acting on opportunities to exercise control, which in this case we conceptualize as preferences for child care involvement. In addition to this focus on interpersonal negotiation between parents, we build on Bronfenbrenner's (1979, 1986) ecological perspective and understand child care arrangements as emerging within complex social systems, demanding constant negotiation between the person and environment. Thus, our attention to empowerment includes a focus on the notable contexts of work, school, and community. We find that in many ways, both mothers and fathers in our sample felt little control over ecological factors shaping child care arrangements. For mothers, empowerment was a process that involved varying degrees of control over fathers’ involvement in child care within the further confines presented by work and school. Fathers generally felt empowered to engage in child care tasks when they chose to do so. This stands in contrast to mothers’ implicit responsibility for the care of their children and need to request fathers’ involvement unless social contexts demanded it.     

Working Between Worlds: Qualitative Methods and Social Psychology

We invite social psychologists in the United States to join with psychologists in other countries and with researchers in other disciplines to include qualitative approaches in their research repertory. Several classic studies in social psychology used field-based qualitative approaches, yet in recent decades, these ways of working have been on the margins of American social psychology. We explore what a qualitative stance offers and entails, giving examples from our own and others' research. The relentless attention that qualitative workers have given to issues of bias, subjectivity, and research ethics prompts us to consider how such issues are always present in research, regardless of its methods.     

Social conflict within and between groups by De Dreu,C. K. (Ed.)

This article identifies pregroup planning-the thinking and preparation done by the social worker in developing a group program-as a neglected area of social work practice. Though the importance of planning is recognized by many writers, little is said about the planning process itself that can help direct and guide the thinking of the social work practitioner. Possible reasons for this gap in our literature and practice are presented. Development of a model of planning for group practice is called for. Components of such a model are drawn from social work writings on work with groups and from research, and a tentative model is suggested.     

Motivating the unemployed: A full-range model of motivational strategies that caseworkers use to activate clients

Governments use activation policies to stimulate unemployed citizens in finding work. Caseworkers are, as front-line workers, responsible for concrete activation trajectories based on these activation policies. Little is known about how caseworkers try to get clients to participate in these activation trajectories. In a qualitative, inductive study (consisting of observations and reflective interviews) in two welfare agencies, we identified 10 motivational strategies that caseworkers employed. The full-range leadership model appeared to be an appropriate perspective to understand, systematize, and reflect on these strategies, in particular as our analyses show that these motivational strategies can be placed on a continuum ranging from laissez-faire to transactional and transformational strategies. We found that caseworkers matched their motivational strategy to the situation and client but preferred transformational strategies. Our findings implicate chances but also challenges for activation in practice and literature on front-line workers.     

Non-genetic mothers and their own children: infertility and IVF donor birth

Over the 1980s in Western societies which have used new reproductive technologies, there has been intense argumentation about connected philosophical, ethical and economic issues. This research on I.V.F. donor egg (i.e. 'non-genetic') motherhood is based on qualitative data from partial life histories of twelve women having children by this technology through a Melbourne infertility programme. Methodology, interpretation, and discussion place it within both critical social and feminist personal identity theoretical frameworks. None of the respondent women but all except one of their respective partners are the biological parents of a total of ten children already born at the data collection stage, and in three well-established pregnancies. Two-thirds of the respondents used 'unknown' donor ova. 'Known' donors were typically the recipients' sisters. Many of these Australian births represent world 'firsts' in medical technical applications. In biographical accounts, the focus was on experiences of social pressure towards parenthood, of infertility and medical treatment, and attitudes of openness or secrecy about using donated ova. While socially and technologically acquired parenthood added a highly-desired dimension to their social identities, a sense of loss appeared to persist in most of the women's personal identities. Where a policy of secrecy towards relatives and friends about use of reproductive technology and gamete donation was maintained, this loss was reinforced by a feeling of social isolation.     

Thinking of you: Relations between mind‐mindedness,theory of mind,and social anxiety traits in middle childhood and adulthood

The mapping of developmental relations between social cognition and real‐world social behaviors has theoretical and practical importance. In the domain of social anxiety, however, studies examining links between social cognitive ability and anxiety have produced mixed results. One potential explanation is that varied facets of social cognition are differentially linked to social anxiety across development. To better understand how social cognition relates to social anxiety, we assessed multiple facets of two important social cognitive capacities—mind‐mindedness and theory of mind— in school‐aged children aged 7–12 and young adults aged 18–24. We also measured social anxiety traits. We found that, across ages, mind‐mindedness and theory of mind were not related to each other. Additionally, for children and adults, higher levels of social anxiety correlated with higher levels of mind‐mindedness toward close social partners, indicating an increased propensity to describe partners using mental state terms. By contrast, social anxiety was not correlated with theory of mind, which measured the ability to decipher or attribute mental states to photographs, videos, or story characters. These findings offer insight into how different components of social cognition are related and how more naturalistic measures of social cognition involving relationships may relate to social anxiety across development.     

Metaphors of Protest: A Classification of Motivations for Collective Action

This article proposes a classification of motivations for collective action based in three of Tetlock's (2002) metaphors of social functionalism (i.e., people as intuitive economists, politicians, and theologians). We use these metaphors to map individual- and group-based motivations for collective action from the literature onto the distinction between individuals who are strongly or weakly identified with their social group. We conclude that low identifiers can be best understood as intuitive economists (supported by both early and recent work on collective action), whereas high identifiers can be best thought of as intuitive politicians or theologians (as recent work on social identity has started to explore). Interestingly, our classification reveals a remarkable lack of attention for the intuitive theologian's motivation for collective action. We therefore develop new hypotheses for future research, and derive recommendations for policy and practice from our analysis.     

Social cognition,social neuroscience,and evolutionary social psychology: What's missing?

In this paper I argue that something important, and something social, is missing from contemporary accounts of social cognition, social neuroscience and evolutionary social psychology. Contemporary accounts of social cognition focus on cognition directed towards social objects, that is, towards persons and social groups. In contrast, early twentieth century accounts of socially engaged cognition focused upon beliefs and attitudes oriented to the represented beliefs and attitudes of members of social ‘reference groups’ and directed towards both social and non‐social objects. I argue that this earlier conception of socially engaged cognition should be integrated with contemporary research on social cognition, social neuroscience and evolutionary social psychology, since it poses a challenge but also an opportunity for these disciplines.     

Towards a Paradigm for Research on Social Representations

Based on Moscovici's (1961) classical study on the cultivation of psychoanalytic ideas in France in the 1950's and our own research on modern biotechnology, we propose a paradigm for researching social representations. Following a consideration of the nature of representations and of the 'iconoclastic suspicion' that haunts them, we propose a model of the emergence of meaning relating three elements: subjects, objects, and projects. The basic unit of analysis is the elongated triangle of mediation (SOPS): subject 1, object, project, and subject 2, captured in the image of a 'Toblerone'. Such social units cultivate, that is produce, circulate and receive representation which may be embodied in four modes–habitual behaviour, individual cognition, informal communication and formal communication–and in three mediums–words, visual images or non-linguistic sounds. We propose an operational definition of a 'social representation' as the comparison of four characteristics of communication systems: the content structures (anchorings and objectifications; core and peripheral elements), the typified processes (diffusion, propagation, propaganda etc.), and their functions (identity, attitude, opinion, resistance, ideology etc.), within the context of segmented social milieus. Seven implications for research on social representations are outlined: (1) content and process; (2) segmentation by social milieus rather than taxonomies; (3) cultivation studies within social milieus; (4) multi-method (mode and medium) analysis; (5) time structures and longitudinal data; (6) the crossover of cultural projects and trajectories; (7) the disinterested research attitude. This ideal type paradigm leads to an operational clarification to identify new research questions, and to guide the design and evaluation of studies on social representations.     

Ethical and psychosocial issues raised by the practice in cases of mistreatment of older adults

Intervention regarding older adult mistreatment raises many questions for practitioners. They have to interact with the victim, the abuser, and, in many cases, with both of them at the same time. In such cases, five themes emerge from the literature review on psycho-social and ethical issues in practice: practitioners' pre-construction and axiological frameworks, victims' capacity, confidentiality versus collaboration between practitioners or between agencies, social and family responsibilities and the balance between competing values in practice. Practitioners are well placed to offer a critical reflection on their practice and on ways of improving it. The goal of our qualitative study is to identify issues and ethical dilemmas in elderly mistreatment situations as represented in the discourses of practitioners in reference to interventions in their psychosocial practice. Sixteen practitioners from the public and community (non-profit organization) sectors were interviewed using a practice history approach. This paper presents the main ethical and psychosocial issues raised by practitioners and some ideas to improve the practice. It is motivated by the crucial question haunting the practitioners' minds: "How far should we go?"     

What social workers talk about when they talk about child care proceedings in the District Court in Ireland

Court proceedings are a fundamental and increasingly time‐consuming aspect of social work practice. However, to date, there is a relatively modest body of literature considering the experiences of social workers in instituting child care proceedings and giving evidence in court. This paper draws on data gathered as part of an in‐depth qualitative study of professional experiences of District Court child care proceedings in Ireland and presents findings regarding the experiences of social workers in bringing court applications for child protection orders. It seeks to answer 2 key questions: First, how do child protection and welfare social workers experience the adversarial nature of child care proceedings in the District Court? Second, what are the views of child protection and welfare social workers on the strengths and weaknesses of child care proceedings as a decision‐making model for children and young people? The main findings are that social workers expressed significant reservations about the predominantly adversarial model that currently operates in Irish child care proceedings and about the level of respect that social workers are afforded within the operation of the system.     

In Search of a Professional Supervisory Practice: External Social Work Supervision in China

This article examines the importance of supportive and educative functions in the practice of social work supervision and identifies the common features of external social work supervision. Using a qualitative study design, the author explores social workers’ need for professional supervision and support, and the functions and roles commonly played by external supervisors. A mixed model of internal and external supervision is used in some countries; however, such a method is not commonly used or discussed in the literature in Asian regions. The findings of this study suggest that the practice of external supervision should be considered by social work agencies in China. Arranging appropriate external supervisors and establishing a supportive supervisory environment at an agency level are recommended to facilitate the professional growth of social work practitioners.