Some contingencies of spelling

This paper presents some speculation about the contingencies that might select standard spellings. The speculation is based on a new development in the teaching of spelling—the process writing approach, which lets standard spellings emerge collateral to a high frequency of reading and writing. The paper discusses this approach, contrasts it with behavior-analytic research on spelling, and suggests some new directions for this latter research based on a behavioral interpretation of the process writing approach to spelling.

     

Inter-American Cooperation in Health Work

This article is a quick overview of the Chicano Movement (CM) with specific analyses of the five major strategies employed by its adherents to effect social change. The CM was a social movement that occurred in the United States with increased activity in the southwest and midwest during a time frame: 1950s to 1980s. Persons of Mexican ancestry residing in the U.S. were its participants and self-identified as Chicanos. The term Chicano stems from the ancient Nahuatl language of the Meshica (Meh Shee Ka) peoples, also known as the Aztecs. Shicano is a shortened version of Meshicano; later pronunciation changed to Chicano and, for some in spelling, Xicano. As a social movement, the CM had as its ultimate goals the acquisition of political power with which to change the power relations between them and the Euro-Americans, also known as the Anglos.     

Emotional Empathy as Related to Mimicry Reactions at Different Levels of Information Processing

The hypotheses of this investigation were based on conceiving of facial mimicry reactions in face-to-face interactions as an early automatic component in the process of emotional empathy. Differences between individuals high and low in emotional empathy were investigated. The parameters compared were facial mimicry reactions, as represented by electromyographic (EMG) activity, when individuals were exposed to pictures of angry or happy faces. The present study distinguished between spontaneous facial reactions and facial expressions associated with more controlled or modulated emotions at different information processing levels, first at a preattentive level and then consecutively at more consciously controlled levels: 61 participants were exposed to pictures at three different exposure times (17, 56, and 2350 ms). A significant difference in facial mimicry reactions between high- and low-empathy participants emerged at short exposure times (56 ms), representing automatic, spontaneous reactions, with high-empathy participants showing a significant mimicking reaction. The low-empathy participants did not display mimicking at any exposure time. On the contrary, the low-empathy participants showed, in response to angry faces, a tendency to an elevated activation in the cheek region, which often is associated with smiling.     

Expanding Vocal Requesting Repertoires via Relational Responding in Adults with Severe Developmental Disabilities

The purpose of this project was to demonstrate untrained vocal requests in three adults with severe developmental disabilities. Specifically, we evaluated whether a history of reinforced relational responding would give rise to untrained vocal requests for novel items. Participants were first taught to request preferred items using their category names. They were then taught conditional discriminations between pictures of preferred items that were categorically related. Finally, participants were tested for their abilities to request items that had not been originally presented during request training, using their category names. All participants demonstrated untrained requests, and for some participants, changes in the mand repertoire were accompanied by changes in the tact repertoire. Some participants also showed generalization of skills across settings.     

Effectiveness of a group-based academic tutoring program for children in foster care: A randomized controlled trial

The consistently poor educational achievement of children in foster care has been associated with many negative outcomes including long term poor adult adjustment (e.g., higher rates of suicide, criminality, and substance abuse). The current study was undertaken to improve foster children's academic skills through academic remediation. Across this two year randomized study, 91 children in out of home foster or kinship care, between grades 1 and 8 inclusive, completed the study. One-half were randomly assigned to the 30-week direct-instruction small group tutoring condition, while the other half served as wait-list controls. A statistically significant increase in standard scores was found on reading decoding, spelling and mathematic skills for the children who received tutoring, but no differences were obtained on sentence comprehension. Significant effect sizes, in the small to moderate range, were also found in support of the tutoring condition across these three domains. The implications of these positive findings as they relate to improving educational achievement among children in foster care are discussed.     

BLOOD MATH

The text takes the form of a dialogue - a series of spoken fragments developed in correspondence by Phelan and Heathfield and written in an interleaved structure. The performance of this dialogue employed slide imagery and a musical score, and the correspondence was pursued through a game of spelling in which the participants gradually chalked out a word on a board. Each letter of the word stands for a thematic concern elaborated in the speaker's writing. Working from various anthropological, psychoanalytic and philosophical discourses on the nature of the gift, the dialogue examines the place of performance within various economies of cultural and personal exchange. Writing letters to one another, the authors move through the intertexts of Beckett, Boltanski, Heidegger, Nabokov and Franko B. The resonance of the act of giving is explored as it is played out in the relations between language and loss, calculation and love, memory and the object, the body and sacrifice, the arts of living and the arts of death. Aside from its conceptual address the presentation explores possibilities within the practice of performative writing and opens the form of the scholarly paper.     

Unclaimed Prize Information Biases Perceptions of Winning in Scratch Card Gambling

Unclaimed prize information (i.e., the number of prizes still available to be won) is information commonly provided to scratch card gamblers. However, unless the number of tickets remaining to be purchased is also provided, this information is uninformative. Despite its lack of utility in assisting gamblers in choosing the most favourable type of scratch card to play, we hypothesized that unclaimed prize information would bias participants’ judgments within a scratch card gambling context. In Experiment 1 (N?=?201), we showed that participants are influenced by this information such that they felt more likely to win, were more excited to play, and preferred to hypothetically purchase more of the scratch card with the greatest number of unclaimed prizes. In Experiment 2 (N?=?201), we attempted to ameliorate this bias by providing participants with the number of tickets remaining to be purchased and equating the payback percentages of all three games. The bias, although attenuated, still persisted in these conditions. Finally, in Experiment 3 (N?=?200), we manipulated the hypothetical scratch cards such that games with the highest number of unclaimed prizes were the least favourable, and vice versa. As in Experiment 2, participants still favoured cards with greater numbers of unclaimed prizes. Possible mechanisms underlying this bias are discussed. In conclusion, across three experiments, we demonstrate that salient unclaimed prize information is capable of exerting a strong effect over judgments related to scratch card games.     

The art of resilience: photo-stories of inspiration and strength among people with HIV/AIDS

Using the visual arts to aid healing is a common therapy for people with critical illness, yet the use of art to improve the lives of people with HIV is under-utilised. Eight male and 20 female participants living with HIV in urban areas of the Midwest, United States, participated in three group photovoice photo-sharing and discussion sessions, post-project individual interviews and a community photo exhibit. We used a grounded theory approach to analyse interview data and identified three key themes: (1) health and wellness, (2) fear and stigma and (3) restoring a threatened identity. Participants identified how taking photos, reflecting on and sharing them in focus groups helped them express themselves while living with and coping with HIV. Offering photography as form of expression is a way to foster strength and, consequently, improve the lives of people living with HIV. Our participants benefitted from the process of telling their story with images. They were able to express positive aspects of their lives which could be a healthy form of catharsis in and of itself. Future research should continue to investigate how participants in participatory approaches like photovoice actually do benefit from the research. Although we focused this analysis on resilience, photovoice is flexible and participants’ responses to it are varied. Additional outcomes such as impact on mental and physical health are worthy of additional exploration.     

Realistic Free-Spins Features Increase Preference for Slot Machines

Despite increasing research into how the structural characteristics of slot machines influence gambling behaviour there have been no experimental investigations into the effect of free-spins bonus features—a structural characteristic that is commonly central to the design of slot machines. This series of three experiments investigated the free-spins feature using slot machine simulations to determine whether participants allocate more wagers to a machine with free spins, and, which components of free-spins features drive this preference. In each experiment, participants were exposed to two computer-simulated slot machines—one with a free-spins feature or similar bonus feature and one without. Participants then completed a testing phase where they could freely switch between the two machines. In Experiment 1, participants did not prefer the machine with a simple free-spins feature. In Experiment 2 the free-spins feature incorporated additional elements such as sounds, animations, and an increased win frequency; participants preferred to gamble on this machine. The Experiment 3 “bonus feature” machine resembled the free spins machine in Experiment 2 except spins were not free; participants showed a clear preference for this machine also. These findings indicate that (1) free-spins features have a major influence over machine choice and (2) the “freeness” of the free-spins bonus features is not an important driver of preference, contrary to self-report and interview research with gamblers.     

Research notes: The effects of research on participants: findings from a study of mothers and employment

The article explores a neglected topic – the effects of research on participants. At the end of a three year longitudinal research project concerning mothers return to the labour market after maternity leave, participants (mothers) were asked to assess their experiences of taking part in the research process. The paper examines three particular aspects of the research process which have important consequences for participants: the theoretical framework and research design, the research methods, and the study findings. A situation where there is a close match between the concerns and characteristics of the researchers and the researched is likely to benefit the project and participants alike.     

Attitudes Toward Juvenile Sex Offender Legislation: The Influence of Case-Specific Information

This study examined attitudes toward the application of adult sex offender legislation to juvenile sex offenders. Participants were randomly assigned to one of nine conditions. In the generic condition, the participants were asked to envision a generic juvenile sex offender, whereas in the manipulated conditions, participants read a vignette with three manipulated variables: offense type, victim age, and victim gender. Afterward, all participants (n = 978) completed questionnaires assessing perceptions of juvenile sex offenders and juvenile sex offender legislation. Overall, participants in the generic juvenile sex offender condition rated the perpetrator as more dangerous and more likely to reoffend than participants in the experimental conditions. Moreover, participants in the generic juvenile sex offender condition were more likely to endorse more punitive punishments and viewed perpetrators as “superpredators.” When examining differences between the experimental conditions, participants reading vignettes with younger victims and male victims as well as vignettes with contact offenses were more likely to view the perpetrator as dangerous, likely to recidivate, as a “superpredator,” and deserving of more punitive punishments. Implications for public policy as well as future research directions are discussed.     

At the birth of second century sociology: times of reflexivity, spaces of identity, and nodes of knowledge

The sociology of the next century is likely to differ from that of the twentieth century. The current situation and the future prospects of sociology are assessed by spelling out the trajectory over the past century of sociology's predominant assumptions about the character and direction of the social world and of its own task of cognition. Sociology is located in three spaces of identity: a space of disciplines, a stage of everyday practice, and a space of imagination and investigation. From the cosmological, epistemological, and spatial trajectories some indications of a new, very different future of sociology are given. Finally, a way of preserving and developing the legacy of first century sociology is presented, in the form of nodes of knowledge, central to a 'typical' sociological approach to the social.     

Tackling Diving: The Perception of Deceptive Intentions in Association Football (Soccer)

The three studies reported examine judgment about the attempts of footballers (soccer players) to deceptively exaggerate the effect of a tackle. Study one reveals that non-professional participants agree about which players were attempting deception and those that were not; there was also agreement about the tackles in which the intentions were ambiguous. Study two demonstrates that the intentions of tackled players match the judgment of their intentions by observers. Study three provides a taxonomy of behaviors that are associated with deceptive and non deceptive intentions. We conclude that deceptive intentions in this context are to a degree manifest in behavior and are observable.     

An Evaluation of Divorce Support Groups

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to evaluate support groups among divorced people. Eleven females and seven males participated in three groups. The participants were interviewed, and some themes were considered. Among these were what it had meant for the subjects to participate in a group, what were the most important functions of the group, and if the participants had benefited psychologically from participating in the group. Four therapeutic factors seemed to be of particular importance. First, meeting people with the same thoughts and feelings, and increased insight of themselves and others. Further, feeling accepted and supported, and expressing difficult feelings were important factors. Group participation increased the subjects' well-being, for example, they felt more normal and less depressed.     

Emergent Intraverbal and Reverse Intraverbal Behavior Following Listener Training in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

We evaluated whether intraverbal and reverse intraverbal behavior emerged following listener training in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Six participants were each taught three sets of three “when?” questions in listener training. A multiple baseline design across behaviors (stimulus sets) was used to assess the effects of listener training. Results showed that intraverbal behavior emerged following listener training for five out of six participants. One participant received additional listener training and intraverbal training before intraverbal behavior emerged. Furthermore, reverse intraverbal responding occurred across all three sets of questions for three of the six participants. Establishing listener behavior may be a pathway for emergent intraverbal and reverse intraverbal responding in children with ASD. Future research could examine what skill repertoire may facilitate such transfer.     

Large-Scale Observational Evidence of Cross-Cultural Differences in Facial Behavior

Self-report studies have found evidence that cultures differ in the display rules they have for facial expressions (i.e., for what is appropriate for different people at different times). However, observational studies of actual patterns of facial behavior have been rare and typically limited to the analysis of dozens of participants from two or three regions. We present the first large-scale evidence of cultural differences in observed facial behavior, including 740,984 participants from 12 countries around the world. We used an Internet-based framework to collect video data of participants in two different settings: in their homes and in market research facilities. Using computer vision algorithms designed for this dataset, we measured smiling and brow furrowing expressions as participants watched television ads. Our results reveal novel findings and provide empirical evidence to support theories about cultural and gender differences in display rules. Participants from more individualist cultures displayed more brow furrowing overall, whereas smiling depended on both culture and setting. Specifically, participants from more individualist countries were more expressive in the facility setting, while participants from more collectivist countries were more expressive in the home setting. Female participants displayed more smiling and less brow furrowing than male participants overall, with the latter difference being more pronounced in more individualist countries. This is the first study to leverage advances in computer science to enable large-scale observational research that would not have been possible using traditional methods.     

Generalized Negatively Reinforced Manding in Children with Autism

Individuals with developmental disabilities are often unable to influence their social environment in traditional ways (i.e., vocal language) and frequently exhibit challenging behaviors (e.g., aggression and self-injury) because such behaviors were previously reinforced under similar conditions. While the area of positive reinforcement manding has been well-documented and empirically validated, there is less research in the area of negatively reinforced manding—particularly in the area of negatively reinforced manding of nonpreferred items. Using a multiple baseline design across participants, this study sought to teach three children with autism to replace their challenging behaviors with more socially appropriate ways to request the removal of nonpreferred items. Results showed that all participants were able to learn the negatively reinforced mand response and these mand responses were generalized to other untrained items. In addition to extending the research in the area, the study empirically defined a procedure for teaching negatively reinforced manding of nonpreferred items. Moreover, teaching the mand response resulted in quality of life improvements for all participants and their families.     

Patterns of employment among individuals with mental illness in vocational recovery

This article provides empirical evidence about the patterns of competitive employment among individuals with serious mental illness who are in vocational recovery. The findings are based on a 5-year longitudinal study on sustained employment, conducted with a national sample of 529 individuals with serious mental illness who were in vocational recovery at the time of study enrollment. Data analysis from the 328 participants who completed the study-from baseline through all five annual follow-up assessments-revealed three different postrecovery employment patterns: continuous, stable, and fluctuating. Although many participants demonstrated the capacity to sustain competitive employment during prolonged periods of time, others experienced employment interruptions. Work interruptions were most frequently attributed to exacerbation of psychiatric symptoms. Schizophrenia spectrum disorder, difficulties with daily functioning, and current receipt of disability benefits predicted the psychiatric-based work interruptions in this sample. Implications for clinical practice are also discussed.     

Changes in Perceived Parent Derogation in a Sample of African American and Non-Hispanic White Males Through the Middle School Years

The purpose of this study was to determine if there were racial differences in perception of parent derogation (i.e., feeling put down by one's parents) in a sample of 451 non-Hispanic White and African American males as they progressed through three years of middle school. Chi-square analyses were used to determine the proportion of participants reporting high levels of parent derogation. Independent t test analyses were utilized to determine mean parent derogation scores. Results indicated that there were no statistically significant differences in mean parent derogation scores between the two races. Furthermore, the mean scores remained stable during the three years of the study. However, the proportion of African American participants reporting high parent derogation was almost double that of their non-Hispanic White peers during the sixth grade, but almost equal in eighth grade. Cultural factors experienced by the two racial groups are discussed as possible explanations for the differences in parent derogation scores over time.