计划生育政策的人口效应

文章试图估计计划生育政策使我国少生了多少人。利用1980~2008年世界140多个国家的数据来模拟在没有计划生育政策影响下经济社会变量与人口变量的相关关系,并据此对中国无计划生育条件下的总和生育率进行测算。将测算出来的无计划生育条件下的总和生育率和中国实际总和生育率分别代入模型进行人口模拟,比较无计划生育条件下和现实条件下人口增长的不同过程和结果。研究表明:无计划生育条件下,我国2008年生育率水平的预测值大概在2.5左右。1972~2008年间,排除经济社会发展的影响,单纯由于计划生育的作用,中国少生了4.58亿人。     

信息时代的人口动力学

经过30多年的努力,中国的人口政策和计划生育工作取得了历史性的成功,使总和生育率从1970年代的6.0降到目前的1.8,已低于临界生育率水平,并稳定地保持了近10年。扭转了过去300多年中国人口急剧增长的趋势,有望于2030年前后达到零增长,把人口稳定在15亿左右的水平上,从而为中国的现代化建设和可持续发展奠定了最根本的基础条件。全世界人口的总和生育率近年来有所下降,但高于临界生育率,人口总量仍在继续增长,2050年可能突破100亿。继续降低总和生育率仍然是人口学界和大多数发展中国家的首要任务。要保持中国未来人口系统的稳定和提高人民的福祉,加强人口学科学研究,建立人口全息系统工程,对全社会的人口状态进行不间断监测,为逐步完善人口政策提供实时信息。该系统的信息应能准确到人,关爱到人,服务到人,与其它社会信息系统联网,如电子健康(eHealth)、地理信息系统(GIS)、环境、社会保障和安全、教育系统等,形成国家基础信息系统的骨干主网。     

生育支持政策何以有效:性别平等视角下的27国生育支持政策组合与生育率反弹北大核心

中国的生育水平长期提振乏力,借鉴世界低生育率国家总和生育率反弹经验并构建中国特色的生育支持政策体系势在必行。以27个低生育率典型国家为例,在构建追踪数据的基础上,分析不同生育支持政策组合对总和生育率反弹的影响以及性别平等发展水平对政策效果的调节作用。研究发现,相较于支持“男性单职工模式”的政策组合,支持“双职工模式”的政策组合更有利于总和生育率的提升;经济支持政策与总和生育率之间有稳定的正向关系,服务支持政策和时间支持政策对总和生育率的提升效果受到性别平等发展水平的调节;在性别平等发展水平更高的国家,服务支持政策和时间支持政策的效果更明显。生育支持政策的制定应考虑不同类型政策之间的相互协调与组合,并深度思考政策背后的价值导向和政策实施的社会情景,营造性别友好的社会文化环境。     

试论时期总和生育率、终身生育率与政策生育率的关系

通过对总和生育率(TFR)、终身生育率(CFR)与政策生育率(PFR)的概念及相关数据分析,论证总和生育率与政策生育率是完全不同的概念,不可直接比较。在特定条件下TFR、CFR和政策生育率会产生差异,在一个国家生育水平下降的历史时期,TFR必然小于当年49岁组女性的CFR;"超生率"、"未婚率"、"未育率"和"不孕率"的变化,决定了政策生育率与终身生育率的差异。借鉴日本经济与人口发展相关数据,可以相信由平均初婚年龄推迟、女性有偶率下降导致的生育水平下降很可能成为对我国人口均衡发展的最大潜在威胁。因此,当前以及今后相当的时期内,我国的政策生育率应高于1.8。     

中国人口增长之探讨

利用1990年人口普查数据,在1989年生育表基础上,分别以不同的方式改变妇女产次别平均生育年龄和产次别生育率水平这两个变量,仿真推算其变化与平均世代间隔、总和生育率、净再生产率、真实人口增长率及总和递进生育率等指标间的关系,并对中国人口未来发展趋势和政策做了深入的分析探讨。     

中国计划生育对生育率影响的评估

中国生育率迅速下降,举世瞩目。在50年代和60年代,中国的总和生育率还在6左右摆动,粗出生率高于30‰,这两个指标都位于世界的高水平。根据国家计生委的调查资料,我国80年代的总和生育率已经下降到2.5左右,粗出生率低于20‰,进入了世界低生育水平国家的行列。中国的生育率在短短十几年内以惊人的速度下降到更替水平,不能不引起世界各国的关注。由于中国人口约占世界人口的22%,是世界上人口最多的国家,中国人口的迅速     

河南省人口老龄化预测

运用联合国模型、生命表理论和年龄移算法,结合河南省1978~2013年人口数据,得出2040年为河南省老年人口峰值期。建立满足老年人口在2040年达到峰值的向量自回归模型。设定低、中、高三种总和生育率方案,通过向量自回归模型预测河南省2014~2050年总人数以及老年人数,并计算相应的人口老龄化系数。本文一方面预测了河南省总人口和老年人口的变化趋势,另一方面也论证了河南省实行"单独二孩"政策的必要性和合理性。     

21世纪中国人口发展前景

２０世纪９０年代以来,中国的总和生育率已降至更替水平以下,并呈递减态势。我们以目前政策允许的生育水平为低方案,设计了低、中、高三个生育率方案来观照２１世纪中国的人口前景,结果发现,虽然三种方案下我国的人口形势都不容乐观,但可以肯定的是,１．８的总和生育率较为适当,女性人口普遍生育二胎的提法是不可取的。     

制约贫困地区农民生育意愿的社会经济因素分析——四个贫困县个案研究

自70年代初实现计划生育政策以来,中国人口控制工作取得了举世公认的成就,这突出地反映在中国生育率的大幅度下降上.例如,1969年,全国人口出生率为34.11‰,而1992年人口出生率下降到18.24‰,23年间出生率下降了近16个千分点;同样,1970年,全国妇女总和生育率为5.8,而1991年,妇女总和生育率为2.3,21年间下降了3.5.     

中国的生育率下降:世纪末的回顾

对世纪人类人口变化最重要和引人注目的内容是战后亚洲的人口转变。而中国的生育率下降所受到的关注可能超过任何一个别的国家。本文在比较分析的基础上,对中国近半个世纪的生育率下降进行了回顾和总结。一、中国生育率下降的对比中国生育率的迅速下降受到了国际社会的广泛关注。表1展示了1950－1995年中国与发展中地区的总和生育率。在五、六十年代,中国与其他发展中地区相似,生育率水平都很高,而自70年代开始,中国生育率出现迅速下降,总和生育率从1965－1970年的接近6下降到1980－1985年的2．5和1990一1995年的2以下。其他发展中地…     

Total fertility rate,women's education,and women's work: What are the relationships?

This paper presents the results of a statistical study, using cross-national data, on the relationships between total fertility rate and women's level of education and women's labor participation. Aggregate data on seventy-one countries were collected from numerous sources. Eight variables related to women's fertility, mortality, economic status, labor participation, and education are analyzed using multivariate linear regression analyses. Two models are considered. The first model regresses five variables on total fertility rate: per capita Cross National Product (GNP), percentage of women ages 15 to 19 who are married, female life expectancy at birth, calories available as a percentage of need, and percentage of married couples using contraception. The second model includes two additional regressors: the average number of years of schooling for women, and the percentage of women in the labor force. These seven variables are regressed on total fertility rate. Although the data are crude, the results of the analyses suggest that the model which incorporates women's level of education and women's labor participation captures the data better than the smaller model. The full model suggests that the percentage of women in the labor force is directly related to total fertility rate, whereas the average number of years of education for women is indirectly related to total fertility rate.     

Change of marital fertility in China from 1964 to 1981]

In 1982 the Chinese National Family Planning Commission conducted a nationwide (excepting Taiwan and Tibet) .001 random sampling of the total population to gather data on the fertility and age structures of married women. In comparing general marital fertility and standardized fertility, findings show that from 1964 to 1970 both rates averaged 225.1/1000. When family planning work began on a wide scale in 1971, the rates steadily declined, reaching 116.7/1000 in 1980. However, in 1967-68 the standard fertility rate rose by 21.34% due to the chaos of the Cultural Revolution, and in 1980-81 the rate increased by 13.2%, indicating that problems still remain in family planning. The total marital fertility rate dropped 2.84/1000 from 1964 to 1981. The rate of decline in rural areas was greater than in the cities, but the cities had a larger percentage decline than the countryside. In the 5-year periods of 1965, 1970, 1975, and 1980, marital fertility rates tended to decline in 1970 and 1975 among women aged 30-40 years because during those periods greater control was placed on women having multiple children. For 1980 and 1975, combined total rates for 15-19 year olds dropped 17.1%, but the combined total rates of 30-49 year olds dropped by 61.2%, indicating that in recent years the drop in marital fertility is mostly among those over 30 years of age.     

China’s Demographic Future Under the New Two-Child Policy

China implemented the two-child policy in 2016, however, potential impacts of this new policy on its population reality have not been adequately understood. Using population census data and 1% population sampling data during the period of 1982–2015, this study develops a fertility simulation model to explore the effects of the two-child policy on women’s total fertility rate, and employs Cohort Component Method in population projections to examine China’s demographic future with different fertility regimes. The fertility simulation results reveal that the two-child policy will make significantly positive effects on China’s total fertility rate through increasing second births, leading to a sharp but temporary increase in the first 5 years after the implementation of the new policy. In addition, population projections using simulated total fertility rates show that the Chinese population would reach its peak value around the middle 2020s and be faced with the reduction of labor force supply and rapid aging process, featured with remarkable increases in both size and share of the elderly population. The findings suggest that the two-child policy would undoubtedly affect China’s fertility rates and demographic future; however, the effects are mild and temporary.

     

Theoretical explanation of rapid decline in China's fertility]

China's fertility decline is widely acknowledged. The 1982 census and a random survey of 1/1,000th of the nation's population set the total fertility rate at 2.6%. Bureau of statistics data collected in 1984 showed the nation's birth rate as 1.7% and total fertility rate 1.94%. Friendly observers call this a miracle; others blame the decline on forced government family planning policy. Scientific pursuit of the causes for the decline is an issue of practical and realistic value. First, favorable conditions for fertility decline have been fostered by the socialist system and are deeply rooted in the country's economic development. China's industrialization and urbanization have brought new lifestyles and liberated individuals and families from the constraints of traditional family life. Couples have chosen to limit the number of children, to enhance the quality of life and education potential of their children, thus altering the traditional high fertility in China. Education of women has played a role in raising women's consciousness; a 1982 census placed the fertility rate of women with high-school level education or above, lower than that for less or uneducated women. Neonatal mortality rate decline is also related to the spontaneous decline in fertility rate, as high fertility has historically been intended to compensate for high child mortality rates. Welfare and social security systems for the elderly have also helped change the traditional mentality of having many children as assurance of life support in old age. Social organizations have accelerated knowledge and methods of planned fertility. Later marriages are also a factor: in 1970 the average marriage age was 19 - 20 and had increased by 1976 to 22 - 23. Other favorable social factors include free birth control and the view of population planning as an essential part of national welfare.     

中国生育率转变的因素分析

阐述了中国生育率由传统的高出生率向近代的低出生率转变的原因,利用邦加兹生育率模式和多元回归分析分别对生育率转变的避孕、人工流产等生物人口学因素,以及都市人口比率、计划生育率等社会经济的因素进行了论述。     

Organization and implementation of China's national sampling survey on fertility and birth control

The Planning and Statistical Department of the State Family Planning Commission of China in July 1988 implemented a fertility and birth control survey in China on 2.16 million married women ages 15-57 using stratified, systematic, clustered, and non-proportionate sampling. 3 questionnaires were used: household, married women, and sample unit covering basic status, family planning status, general characteristics of pregnancy and contraception, population flow, deaths since 1981, and socioeconomic status. The authors suggest several international cooperative research projects including: design of fertility and contraception survey; Chinese population growth; Chinese population dynamics; dynamics of marital and family status; fertility; contraception and birth control; mortality; migration; status of the nationalities of China; population development; regional fertility status; and others. Data from the survey will be available in June 1989.     

Case study: fertility decline in Iran

Iran has experienced one of the most successful family planning programs in the developing world, with 64 percent decline in total fertility rate (TFR) between 1986 and 2000. This paper focuses on Iranians’ unique experience with implementation of a national family planning program. Recognition of sensitive moral and ethical aspects of population issues resulted in successful collaboration of technical experts and religious leaders. Involvement of local health workers, women health volunteers and rural midwives led to great community participation. Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) data in 2000 indicated a TFR of 2.0 births per women and 74 percent contraceptive use among married women. This case study will help policy makers and researchers in Moslem countries and other developing countries with high fertility rate to consider a successful family program as a realistic concept with positive impacts on nation’s health and human development.     

Kenya's record population growth: a dilemma of development

The causes and implications of Kenya's 4% rate of natural increase and fertility rate of 8.1 births per woman were examined. Attention was directed to the following: pronatalist pressures; inadvertent pronatalist impact of development; women's education and employment and fertility; population growth and pressures; mortality decline and population growth; fertility levels and differentials; fertility desires; the family planning program; and family planning knowledge, attitudes, and practice. Kenya's development success has worked to push up the population growth rate. Improved health care and nutrition halved infant mortality from 160 to 87 deaths/1000 live births between 1958 and 1977 and a marked increase in primary school enrollment may be factors in the birthrate increase to 53/1000 population. At this time fertility is highest among women with 1-4 years of education. The 1977-1978 Kenya Fertility Survey showed that only 5.8% of married women were using modern contraception, indicating that the national family planning program, established in 1967, has made little progress. Program difficulties have included shortages of staff, supplies and easily accessible clinic as well as an almost universal desire on the part of Kenyans for families of at least 7 children. Children are viewed as essential to survival and status to the rural population.     

India's population in transition

This demographic profile of India addresses fertility, family planning, and economic issues. India is described as a country shifting from economic policies of self-reliance to active involvement in international trade. Wealth has increased, particularly at higher educational levels, yet 25% still live below the official poverty line and almost 66% of Indian women are illiterate. The government program in family planning, which was instituted during the early 1950s, did not change the rate of natural increase, which remained stable at 2.2% over the past 30 years. 1993 marked the first time the growth rate decline to under 2%. The growth rate in 1995 was 1.9%. The total population is expected double in 36 years. Only Nigeria, Pakistan, and Bangladesh had a higher growth rate and higher fertility in 1995. India is geographically diverse (with the northern Himalayan mountain zone, the central alluvial plains, the western desert region, and the southern peninsula with forest, mountains, and plains). There are regional differences in the fertility rates, which range from replacement level in Kerala and Goa to 5.5 children in Uttar Pradesh. Fertility is expected to decline throughout India due to the slower pace of childbearing among women over the age of 35 years, the increase in contraceptive use, and increases in marriage age. Increased educational levels in India and its state variations are related to lower fertility. Literacy campaigns are considered to be effective means of increasing the educational levels of women. Urbanization is not expected to markedly affect fertility levels. Urban population, which is concentrated in a few large cities, remains a small proportion of total population. Greater shifts are evident in the transition from agriculture to other wage labor. Fertility is expected to decline as women's share of labor force activity increases. The major determinant of fertility decline in India is use of family planning, which has improved in access and use during the 1980s. If India is to keep a stable population under 1.6 billion in the future, Indians may have to accept only one child per family.