Depressive Symptoms and Their Association With Adverse Environmental Factors and Substance Use in Runaway and Homeless Youths

We used diathesis‐stress and stress‐sensitization models to determine whether family maltreatment, street‐related traumatic events, stressful life events, and substance use were associated with depressive symptoms in runaway and homeless youths (RHY) in Los Angeles. Greater severity of depressive symptoms was significantly related to family maltreatment, being exposed to more traumatic stressors during homelessness, and current substance use compared to no substance use. Family maltreatment was also found to moderate the relationship between traumatic stressors and depressive symptoms. Importantly, cumulative exposure to the investigated risk factors at varying levels was associated with more severe depressive symptoms. Using a trauma‐informed approach to screen for RHY at risk of depression may pave the way for secondary prevention of major depression in RHY.     

See no evil,hear no evil,speak no evil: assessing complex trauma in young children

Complex trauma generally refers to a child's exposure to multiple traumatic events often within the context of an interpersonal relationship. Childhood traumatic events are commonplace and can have significant implications for physical and mental health. However, traumatic events are often not assessed by clinicians involved in their care. This paper outlines an approach to assessing complex trauma in young children in clinical settings. This approach involves an initial interview, an assessment of traumatic events and trauma symptoms in the child, an assessment of the parent–child interaction, an understanding of the child's functioning in multiple settings, and an assessment of parental trauma where relevant. Complex trauma takes time to assess and is dependent on the parent's ability to recognise and acknowledge the effect trauma has had. The paper concludes with some of the challenges when assessing complex trauma in young children in clinical settings.     

September 11 attacks: prior interpersonal trauma, dysfunctional cognitions, and trauma response in a midwestern university sample

Undergraduate college students (N = 133) were assessed for posttrauma and depressive symptomatology, posttrauma cognitions, and previous traumatic experiences 1 month after the September 11 attacks in the United States. Negative beliefs regarding oneself and the world mediated the relationship between prior interpersonal trauma and acute trauma symptoms. Acute depression acted as a mediator between prior interpersonal trauma and negative cognitions of oneself and self-blame cognitions. The results suggest that even in a nonclinical, nontreatment seeking college sample, prior traumatic events can play an important role in an individual's short-term adjustment following indirect exposure to a significant trauma. The differential relationship of negative beliefs on acute trauma symptoms and depression is discussed.     

Career Adaptability of Trauma Survivors: The Moderating Role of Posttraumatic Growth

Impaired functioning in occupational domains is a diagnostic characteristic of posttraumatic stress disorder, and yet the interactions between trauma and career remain understudied. This study examined the relationships between trauma symptoms, posttraumatic growth, and career adaptability in college students who identified as trauma survivors (N = 215). Results indicated that (a) trauma symptoms and posttraumatic growth were both significantly predictive of career adaptability and (b) posttraumatic growth moderated the relationship between trauma and career adaptability. The impact of demographic factors and implications for career counselors and counselor educators are also discussed.     

Trauma and Bowen Family Systems Theory: Working with Adults Who were Abused as Children

Working with survivors of trauma is mostly challenging, exhausting, long‐term and often ‘messy’, when interventions that ‘should’ work, don't, or the unexpected arises. Nevertheless, explanations that speak to recovery from trauma more and more rely on neurobiological concepts to account for any positive change. Combining the family systems approach of Murray Bowen and recent research on the brain and trauma, post trauma symptoms are viewed as part of the ‘family emotional process’ even when traumatic events have emanated from outside the family system itself. Variations in responses to trauma, including dissociation and self‐harm are discussed in relation to chronic anxiety and ‘differentiation of self’.     

Chance Events and Career Decidedness: Latent Profiles in Relation to Work Motivation

Research has shown that chance events affect careers but has not established the nature of their effects. Moreover, the relationship between chance and career decidedness is not well understood. The authors used a person‐centered approach with latent profile analysis to examine 312 Swiss adolescents in their 1st year of vocational training. The authors identified 5 qualitatively differing profiles according to levels of perceived chance events and career decidedness: balanced scorers, undecided with mean chance, undecided with high chance, decided with chance, and decided without chance. The groups differed significantly in work motivation (i.e., occupational self‐efficacy beliefs, perceived person–job fit, and work engagement). Decided adolescents reported more favorable work motivation regardless of their level of perceived chance events. The results imply that promoting decidedness remains a valuable goal in career counseling despite the occurrence of unpredicted events.     

The role of self-care on compassion satisfaction,burnout and secondary trauma among child welfare workers

Child welfare workers are routinely exposed to multiple traumatic events when working with children and families, and are at an increased risk of experiencing burnout and secondary trauma. Self-care is often recommended as a restorative or protective activity against the negative effects of working with traumatized individuals, although few studies have examined the benefit of self-care empirically. Trauma-informed self-care (TISC) includes being aware of one's own emotional experience in response to exposure to traumatized clients and planning/engaging in positive coping strategies, such as seeking supervision, attending trainings on secondary trauma, working within a team, balancing caseloads, and work–life balance. Compared with generic personal care activities, TISC is likely to be especially relevant for child welfare workers. This study examined the role of TISC on compassion satisfaction, burnout and secondary trauma which was assessed by administering surveys to a sample of 104 child welfare case managers and supervisors. Almost one third of the sample reported high levels of burnout (29.8%) and secondary trauma (28.8%), and low levels of compassion satisfaction (31.7%). Results suggested that workers who engaged in higher levels of TISC experienced higher levels of compassion satisfaction and lower levels of burnout, although there was no relationship with secondary trauma. Findings provide preliminary evidence that TISC may be a beneficial practice to reduce risk of burnout and preserve workers' positive experience of their job, however workers experiencing secondary trauma are likely to need additional specialized intervention to assist them with their recovery.     

The psychoanalytic structure of trauma: Spellbound

This essay engages in a close analysis of two films, Alfred Hitchcock’s Spellbound (1945) and Ang Lee’s Hulk (2003), in order to examine their approaches to trauma, especially in relation to the psychoanalytic notion of Nachträglichkeit (“afterwardsness”). A complex notion of afterwardsness is proposed whereby it is predicated on a relationship between two events, but where the importance of afterwardsness is not seen to lie in the nature of the events but rather on what determines the relationship between the two events. This determining relation thus leads to a notion of the structure of trauma and the argument that the crucial factor in a psychoanalytic approach to trauma lies not in an uncovering of traumatic events, but rather on the structure that retrospectively makes events traumatic.     

The Role of Parental Posttraumatic Stress,Marital Adjustment,and Dyadic Self‐Disclosure in Intergenerational Transmission of Trauma: A Family System Approach

Research indicates that posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) induced by war trauma may be transmitted to veterans’ wives and offspring (secondary traumatic stress; STS). However, the interplay between family members’ characteristics has not been accounted for in such processes. Taking a family systems perspective, we examine the contributions of fathers’ PTSS, mothers’ STS, marital adjustment, and self‐disclosure of both parents to offspring's STS and test whether marital quality applies as a mechanism of parent–child transmission. Combat veterans and former prisoners of war (N = 123), their spouses, and adult offspring were investigated in a multiple‐step mediation analysis. The results highlight the mother's crucial role in trauma transmission and suggest that strengthening the marital relationship may buffer the transmission of fathers’ PTSS to offspring.     

Tolerance of Uncertainty: Links to Happenstance,Career Decision Self‐Efficacy,and Career Satisfaction

This study investigated the extent to which tolerance of uncertainty affects the relationship between happenstance skills and career satisfaction via career decision self‐efficacy. Moderated mediation analysis was conducted on data collected from 321 graduates (175 men, 146 women) of Korean universities making the school‐to‐work transition. Results showed that career decision self‐efficacy fully mediated the relationship between happenstance skills and career satisfaction. Furthermore, the moderation effect of tolerance of uncertainty had a significant impact on the relationship between happenstance skills and career decision self‐efficacy. Tolerance of uncertainty should be considered an important variable in happenstance career theory and intervention. Unplanned influences should also be considered important factors in the career decision‐making process.     

Self‐Efficacy,Perceptions of Barriers,Vocational Identity,and the Career Exploration Behavior of Latino/a High School Students

This study explored the potential relationship between the social cognitive variables of career decision‐making self‐efficacy and perceptions of barriers and the outcome variables of vocational identity and career exploration behaviors in a sample of 128 urban Latino/a high school students. The results indicated that higher levels of career decision‐making self‐efficacy were related to both a more differentiated vocational identity and a greater engagement with career exploration tasks. Perception of fewer barriers was also found to be related to a more integrated vocational identity. Implications for career counseling and future research are discussed.     

Interpersonal trauma and associated psychopathology in girls and boys living in residential care

Out-of-home placement in e.g. residential care is the most common intervention for children and adolescents at risk and studies have shown that this population exhibits high prevalence rates of traumatic events. Associations with specific psychopathology need to be studied in order to sensitize caregivers to the specific needs of this population. The present study aimed to assess the relationship between interpersonal traumatic experiences and specific psychopathological symptoms in a high-risk population of girls and boys living in youth welfare institutions in residential care. 370 adolescents living in 64 different Swiss institutions and their professional caregivers filled out questionnaires on traumatic experiences and psychopathology and took part in structured clinical interviews. They were grouped in 3 different subgroups: no interpersonal trauma, single interpersonal trauma and multiple interpersonal trauma, i.e. interpersonal trauma in two or more domains. Furthermore, associations between the identity of the perpetrator (if the perpetrator was known vs. unknown to the victim) and psychopathology were examined. One third of participants reported multiple interpersonal trauma with female adolescents being more often affected. Multiple interpersonal trauma was associated with more internalizing and externalizing symptoms, but this association was only found with self-reported psychopathology. Male adolescents with multiple interpersonal trauma seemed to be more vulnerable to substance use and affective disorders, while female adolescents with multiple interpersonal trauma tended to have disorders of attention, activity and conduct disorders. Interpersonal trauma (compared to no interpersonal trauma) was not associated with higher rates of PTSD. Furthermore, associations between interpersonal trauma and psychopathology were stronger when the perpetrator was known to the victim.Our results suggest that interpersonal trauma, especially multiple interpersonal trauma, seem to be associated with mental health problems beyond the symptoms of PTSD in this high-risk population. Concepts of residential care institutions should contain trauma-sensitive care and include psychiatric liaison services in order to take into account the specific needs of adolescents in residential care.     

Sexuality attitudes: The impact of trauma

This study examines the relationship between traumatic events and attitudes toward sexuality. Our results show that suffering trauma is related to more accepting attitudes concerning sexuality. Generally, people who suffer negative events, many of which are traumatic, are more likely to see both pornography and having a homosexual friend or family member as acceptable. Traumatic events that are sex‐related or related to other physical assault proved to be most significant in the prediction of sexuality attitudes for women only. The results are specified by gender: Trauma predicts attitudes toward pornography for women but not for men, and traumatic events are associated with attitudes concerning homosexuality for women. These results are discussed in light of the previous research, and suggestions for future research made.     

Traumatic Experiences in Childhood and Adult Substance Use in a Nonclinical Sample: The Mediating Role of Arousal/Reactivity

The vast majority of adults in the United States experience at least one traumatic event during childhood. According to the self‐medication hypothesis of substance use disorders, adult survivors of childhood trauma may cope with trauma‐related symptoms via alcohol or drug use. The purpose of this study is to identify through which specific PTSD symptom clusters childhood trauma exposure are associated with adult substance use. Participants of this study (N = 627) were not recruited based on substance use or traumatic exposure. Results of this study demonstrate that arousal/reactivity partially mediates the association between childhood trauma and current substance use. Implications for treatment include recommendations for trauma‐informed approaches that aim to decrease arousal/reactivity and subsequently substance use.     

Shift Work,Role Overload,and the Transition to Parenthood

This article examines how the work hours, work schedules, and role overload of working‐class couples are related to depressive symptoms and relationship conflict across the transition to parenthood. Data are from 132 dual‐earner couples interviewed 5 times across the transition. Multilevel modeling analyses revealed that working evening or night shifts, as opposed to day shifts, was related to higher levels of depressive symptoms. For mothers only, working rotating shifts predicted relationship conflict. Increases in role overload were positively related to both depression and conflict; working a nonday shift explained variance in depression and conflict above and beyond role overload. Results suggest that for new parents, working nonday shifts may be a risk factor for depressive symptoms and relationship conflict.     

Do Secondary Trauma Symptoms in Spouses of Combat-Exposed National Guard Soldiers Mediate Impacts of Soldiers’ Trauma Exposure on Their Children?

This exploratory study examines the associated effects of combat exposure on Soldiers assigned to a Midwestern Army National Guard unit. It also explores the secondary and mediating effects of combat exposure on Soldier’s spouses and children. The correlations of combat exposure with trauma symptoms, substance abuse, domestic violence and secondary trauma symptoms among family members are identified. Survey results suggest that immediate family members of combat-exposed Soldiers with high levels of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are at risk for developing secondary traumatic stress. Secondary trauma symptoms in these spouses are a risk-increasing mediating variable between trauma symptoms in combat-exposed Soldiers and secondary trauma symptoms in their children. Results from this investigation emphasize the need for further inquiry into this topic. They further highlight the need for preventive and treatment efforts targeted toward all family members and relationships in order to lessen the effects of combat exposure.     

Secondary traumatic stress and self-care inextricably linked

ABSTRACT

Increasingly trauma scholars are exploring the susceptibility of mental health providers to secondary trauma reactions. The current study explores the relationship between clinical social work practice with trauma-exposed clients and secondary traumatic stress among social workers. The intent of this study is to identify the role various factors play in the development of secondary trauma (also known as compassion fatigue). A simple random sample of National Association of Social Workers members were asked to participate. Participants completed an online survey that explored their exposure and responses to secondary traumatic stress. The online survey consisted of standardized measures including the Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale and The Coping Strategies Inventory which assesses secondary trauma and self-care strategies, respectively (Bober, Regehr, & Zhou, 2006; Bride, Robinson, Yegidis, & Figley, 2003). The magnitude of work (the extent and intensity of time working with trauma-exposed clients) is assessed by a non-standardized measure which consists of clinical caseloads composition questions. Job satisfaction is measured by items taken from the National Association of Social Workers’ workplace questionnaire (Whitaker & Arrington, 2008). 161 social workers completed the online survey. It required approximately 35 minutes to complete. This project empirically demonstrated that high-magnitude social work practice (providing therapeutic intervention to trauma survivors, i.e. military service members and veterans) is associated with higher levels of secondary trauma. There is also empirical evidence that self-care strategies can mitigate the impact of the secondary trauma. Educational and workforce implications for study findings are discussed.     

Temporal Relationships Among Depressive Symptoms,Risky Behavior Engagement,Perceived Control,and Gender in a Sample of Adolescents

The goals of the study were to examine whether (a) risky behaviors precede depressive symptoms or, conversely, depressive symptoms predict risky behavior engagement; (b) gender moderates the relationship between risky behavior engagement and depressive symptoms; and (c) perceived control strengthens the association between risky behavior engagement and depressive symptoms. At Time 1, 118 adolescents completed self‐report measures assessing perceived control, risky behavior engagement, and depressive symptoms. Follow‐up assessments occurred every 6 weeks (Times 2–5), and participants completed measures assessing risky behavior engagement and depressive symptoms. Results indicated that neither risky behavior engagement nor depressive symptoms emerged as main effects for the sample as a whole. When examining the relationship between depressive symptoms and risky behavior engagement as a function of gender, boys', but not girls', risky behavior engagement predicted higher levels of depressive symptoms. Irrespective of whether we examined boys or girls, depressive symptoms did not predict risky behavior engagement. With regards to the role of cognitive vulnerability, adolescents with lower levels of perceived control reported higher levels of depressive symptoms following risky behavior engagement. These findings suggest that both gender and cognitive vulnerability factors may potentiate the relationship between risky behavior engagement and subsequent depressive symptoms.     

A Moderated Mediation Model of Planned Happenstance Skills,Career Engagement,Career Decision Self‐Efficacy,and Career Decision Certainty

This study examined how college students’ levels of planned happenstance skills influenced the relationships among career engagement, career decision self‐efficacy, and career decision certainty. Moderated mediation analysis was used with a sample of 217 Korean undergraduate students. The results indicated that career decision self‐efficacy mediated the relationship between career engagement and career decision certainty. Moreover, the positive indirect effect of career engagement on career decision through career decision self‐efficacy was strengthened as the level of planned happenstance skills increased. In conclusion, college students’ career engagement strengthens their career decision certainty via career decision self‐efficacy when they have enough planned happenstance skills to discover unexpected career opportunities.     

Anticipated Work‐Family Conflict: Effects of Gender,Self‐Efficacy,and Family Background

Anticipated levels of 2 types of work‐family conflict (WFC) were studied among 358 students from 2 universities. The study examined the contribution of gender, parental models of child care and housework, and self‐efficacy to the variance in anticipated WFC. Findings demonstrated that the bidirectionality of the relations between work and family life also exists in anticipated conflicts. A number of gender‐related differences emerged: Women anticipated higher levels of work interfering with family and family interfering with work and demonstrated lower efficacy in managing these conflicts than did men. Exposure to an egalitarian child care model correlated with lower anticipated levels of work interfering with family. Self‐efficacy correlated negatively with both types of conflict. Implications for further research and career programs are discussed.