Reading Social Work Competing Discourses in the Rules and Requirements for the Diploma in Social Work

Correspondence to Dr Beth Humphnes, Department of Applied Community Studies, Manchester Metropolitan University, 799 Wilmslow Road, Manchester M20 2RR Summary The changes which have taken place across all of social workeducation and practice in Britain introduce a new phase forthe profession in line with wider political and economic changesin the UK. The Rules and Requirements for the Diploma in SocialWork exemplify these changes, and the document containing themis a useful focus for an analysis of what is at stake. Thisarticle employs discourse analysis to examine the ideologicalfunctions of the Dip.S.W. regulations and their relationshipto wider social discourses, having in mind both the discipliningrole of discourse and its possibilities for transformation.It identifies a dominant regulatory discourse, and an oppositionalliberatory discourse which are in dialogue with each other andwith related discourses. The article considers the constructionof social work in the document in its surveillance, managerialist,competence-based functions. The analysis also looks for contradictoryvoices in these discourses and in CCETSW'. Welsh Language Policyand Equal Opportunities Statement, which might offer sites ofresistance and refusal. It is argued that the shape of the stagesocial work has entered into is not inevitable, and the destabilizingpotential of such an analysis creates a space for the imaginationof alternatives.     

Towards an Alternative Model of Social Groupwork

Summary This paper arose from our disagreement with some of the suggestionsin an earlier article in this journal (Brown et al., 1982).Before and since, we have both worked in and studied numerousexamples of groups of a type which, according to Brown and hiscoauthors, scarcely exists in British social work practice.This paper explains what we believe to be the actual significanceof the type of group work we refer to as ‘self-directed’,together with our view of its place within wider social work,community work, and groupwork practice. We also give examplesof such groups and conclude that their proliferation would enableworkers to go beyond the alleviation of individual distressinto the achievement of external change.     

'Lifeworld', 'System' and Family Group Conferences: Habermas's Contribution to Discourse in Child Protection

Habermas’s critical social theory has been challengedon a range of fronts. However, the authors see merit in hismediation thesis as set out in the seminal text, Between Factsand Norms (1996). Adopting a pragmatist defence of the thesis,we review and demonstrate the effectiveness of what we believeis a coincidental expression of some of its main tenets—TheFamily Group Conference in Child Protection. Drawing furtheron Habermas’s work, we then proceed to re-work aspectsof the conference’s core processes, thereby accentuatingthe possibility of empowering dialogue between its key participants:the families (who embody the ‘lifeworld’) and thesocial work professionals (who represent the ‘system’).In the final section, we argue that moral practice in childprotection must be safeguarded by communicational proceduresthat explicitly address issues relating to the use of powerand the need for ‘recognition’ between subjects.     

Strange Meeting: Marxism, Psychoanalysis and Social Work

Summary It is suggested that the polarity between Marxism and psychoanalysisis one factor hindering the development of social work's professionalidentity. The first section of the article suggests ways inwhich a dialogue between the two perspectives might be established.In the second section such a dialogue is applied to a numberof central concepts in social work theory and practice.     

Evaluating Social Work and Medical Practice with Black and Ethnic Minority Groups Using the Clinical Audit Model

Correspondence to Kish Bhatti-Sinclair, Department of Social Work Studies, University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK. Summary This paper is based on the External Audit-Ethnically SensitivePractice (EA-ESP) project which was undertaken within six primaryand secondary health care settings. This project is used asan example of how the clinical audit model can be used to monitorand review health and social work practice in the UK. The paperexamines quality, compares approaches to evaluation, and suggeststhat audit can be a useful tool for agencies in obtaining userand staff views on many areas of practice but in particularon equal opportunities, anti-racism and anti-oppression. Attentionis drawn to audit within broader evaluative and review approachesalready employed by social work academics and practitioners.The issue of quality and how it can be measured is consideredthrough an analytical comparison with approaches which employaction research and other evaluative means in the process ofreview. Audit is explored in the context of a growing need for the developmentof monitoring and review systems which provide evidence to supportand develop professionalism within social work. External auditis explored and compared to internal audit. Finally, the needfor the development of quality services in anti-racist and anti-oppressivework is highlighted and it is suggested that audit can be acost-effective and efficient way of achieving this.     

Genericism and Specialization: The Story since 1970

Using the first three years of the British Journal of SocialWork, 1971–74, as a starting point, this paper tracesthe difficulties which have beset the social work professionin establishing a sound coherent basis both for a generic foundationand for subsequent specializations. It examines the factorswhich have contributed to these difficulties, in education,in practice and in relation to external factors, notably political.It concludes that social work has been blown off course butthat there are hopeful indications of a new impetus to restoreand regenerate the essence of good practice.     

Regulation and Risk in Social Work: The General Social Care Council and the Social Care Register in Context

The 2000 Care Standards Act led to the setting up the GeneralSocial Care Council (GSCC) as the new governing professionalbody for social workers and other social care employees in England.¹The GSCC published national Codes of Practice for social carestaff and their employers in 2002, whilst 1 April 2003 saw theintroduction of the Social Care Register. The stated aim ofthese developments is to protect the public, improve the qualityof care offered by social workers and increase public confidencein the profession. However, such intentions disguise the increasein regulatory control that the GSCC and social care employershave gained over the workforce—intrusions that have metrelatively little criticism. By locating these developmentswithin a broader social context, one in which risk and its managementare at the forefront of contemporary social policy and practice,this paper argues that underlying the debate is a climate offear and distrust in which there is a tendency to view peopleas either vulnerable, dangerous or both. Such a degraded viewof the subjects of social work also pertains to social workersthemselves, who are simultaneously seen as assessors of risk,at risk and as a risk.     

Keeping Social Work Honest: Evaluating as Profession and Practice

Correspondence to Ian Shaw, School of Social and Administrative Studies, University of Wales Cardiff, 50 Park Place, Cardiff CF1 3AT Summary The central argument of this paper is that social work needsa radical alternative to existing options for evaluating practice.Social workers at present are offered three choices. They areinvited to choose between applying research, conducting researchor adopting specific forms of empirical research-based practice(for example Everitt et al., 1992; Thyer. 1993; Fuller and Petch,1995). We touch briefly on reasons why we believe none of these optionsprovides an adequate grounding for social work, referring especiallyto the growing call for social work to find new purpose throughan empirical, research-based practice. If alternative approachesare to be persuasive, they must be fashioned from the materialsof a new approach to research on social work practice—‘one that is exploratory rather than confirmatory, buildinga model of evaluation from the practitioners' own accounts ratherthan superimposing an ideal model’ (Elks and Kirkhart,1993, p. 555). The major part of this paper is taken up withevidence from research of this kind. The model of evaluatingin practice with which we conclude the paper is simultaneouslytrue to social workers' accounts of their practice, while offeringa critical starting point for evaluating and refashioning thatpractice.     

Dialogue and Social Change: An Interdisciplinary and Transformative History

Intergroup dialogue is an interdisciplinary field of practice that seeks to improve intergroup relations and effect social change. The use of dialogue as a method is growing within numerous social science professions including social work, and an understanding of the origins of dialogue will allow current practitioners to place their work within a larger context. This article provides a historical overview of the application of dialogue theory and methods, an analysis of the relationship between social constructionism and intergroup dialogue, and provides important directions for social workers who can utilize intergroup dialogue to promote social justice.     

Notes on Theory and Practice in Social Work: a Comparative View

Please address reprint requests to Robert van Krieken, Department of Social Work, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia. Summary There are still a number of problems surrounding the relationshipbetween theories of social work practice and that practice itself.This paper examines the factors underlying those problems andemphasises their roots in the failure to examine the diversityof social work theories and practices. We refer to one attemptto resolve the problems—the distinction between ‘practicetheory’ and ‘theory of practice’—pointout some difficulties with it and suggest an alternative, three-folddistinction within theorising: between (a) materialist socialtheory, (b) strategic practice theory and (c) working concepts. As an example of how those distinctions can be used, we thenbriefly discuss the work of Oskar Negt and its introductioninto the Dutch welfare context, as it was the issues raisedby that which stimulated the ideas in this paper. We concludeby arguing that only this kind of perspective on theorisingcan produce ideas which are of real use to progressive socialwork practitioners.     

The Effectiveness of Attached Social Workers in the Management of Depressed Women in General Practice

Summary Following early reports of the feasibility and usefulness oflocating social workers in general practice (Collins, 1965;Forman and Fairbairn, 1968; Cooper, 1971) the number of attachmentsto general practice has increased markedly over the last decade(Gilchrest et al., 1978). Although there have been a numberof accounts of the increased co-operation between health carestaff (Clare and Corney, 1982) there has been a dearth of objectiveevaluations of the advantages these schemes bring to generalpractice patients. This paper describes the design, executionand outcome of a clinical trial of social work carried out ondepressed women in general practice aged 18–45. It focuseson the social workers' activities and the clients view of help:more detailed information is described elsewhere (Corney, 1981).     

Virtue Ethics and Social Work: Being Lucky, Realistic, and not Doing ones Duty

Correspondence to Graham McBeath, Department of Sociology and Politics, University College, Northampton, Northants. NN2 7AL, UK. E-mail: graham{at}spooner.demon.co.uk; Stephen Webb, Centre for Social Policy and Social Work, University of Sussex, Falmer, Nr Brighton, Sussex, UK. E-mail: s.a.webb{at}sussex.ac.uk Summary This article argues that in a complex socio-political world,social work ethics needs to re-cast the moral identity of thesocial worker in terms of virtue ethics. We review virtue theory'sAristotelian foundations and criticisms of Kantian and utilitariantheory and show how they apply to social work. Subsequentlywe offer an account of a virtue-based social work that questionsthe validity of several models of practice currently fashionable.Virtue theory emphasizes the priority of the individual moralagent who has acquired virtues commensurate with the pursuitof a revisable conception of the good life—the well-beingof all in a defined community. The virtues are the acquiredinner qualities of humans—character—the possessionof which, if applied in due measure, will typically contributeto the realization of the good life or ‘eudaimonia’.The role of the virtuous social worker is shown to be one thatnecessitates appropriate application of intellectual and practicalvirtues such as justice, reflection, perception, judgement,bravery, prudence, liberality and temperance. This ‘self-flourishing’worker, in bringing together the capacity for theoretical andpractical action makes possible a hermeneutic or interpretivepraxis best appraised in dialogue with fellow-practitionersand clients. With a social work remit increasingly routinizedby accountability, quality control and risk management thereis an emphasis on regulation and duties. This has produced aculture of following approved or typical processes resultingin defensive forms of social work wholly uncongenial to thedevelopment of human qualities likely to promote social workers'engagement in critique and revision of what counts as best practice.In sum, our core proposition is that social work practice andeducation, to fit an unpredictable, non-linear world, shoulddevelop means by which professionals nurture the virtues. Thiswould reflexively enhance social work itself.     

A Study of a Total Social Services Care Population and its Inter-Agency Shared Care Populations

There are very few large population studies and little informationabout the characteristics of social services populations andthe inter-agency populations that social services departmentsshare with other agencies. This study fills this gap. It examinesa total social services adult care population, excluding residentialcare homes (N = 19,461) in the context of its general co-terminoushealth authority population (N = 646,239). Approximately two-thirds(61 per cent) of the social services population were women,compared to the health authority population of 51 per cent.Sixty-two per cent were over sixty-five years compared to 23per cent of the health authority. Age groupings and genderedpatterns of service use are then identified for different caregroups. The study then examines care populations shared betweensocial services and other agencies, identifying the amount ofshared care and the characteristics of specific shared caresubgroups. Forty-two per cent of the social services populationwere shared with the community health trust and 19 per centwith the mental health trust. The proportion of the social servicespopulation in contact with Criminal Justice and accident andemergency was nearly twice that in the overall health authoritypopulation. The limitations of these data are examined and thepotential of this method to inform inter-agency planning andshared care is discussed.     

Towards a Theory of Social Work Expertise

Correspondence to Prof. Jan Fook, School of Social Inquiry, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria 3217, Australia Summary This paper begins by summarizing the results of a qualitativeexploratory study of thirty experienced social workers whichwas undertaken in order to identify some characteristics ofsocial work expertise. Some of the features identified includea confidence with professional identity and an ability to dealwith complexities. Participants were also able quickly to prioritizerelevant factors and were aware of constraints and resources,but made conscious use of formal theory only minimally. Thefull results of this study are reported elsewhere (Fook et al.,in press). The main purpose of this paper is to explore theimplications of these results in developing a theory of socialwork expertise. The issues examined include the debates aroundthe relationship between theory and practice in social work,the generic versus the specialist nature of social work, therelevance of existing theories of expertise to social work,and the affirmation of artistic elements of social work practice.     

Beyond Social Constructionism: Critical Realism and Social Work

Summary Theories within the social and psychological sciences continueto shape social work practice. However, recent debates withinthese sciences on the shortcomings of ‘social constructionism’,and the attempt to overcome them through a critical realistposition, have so far failed to capture social work's attention.This paper provides a critical overview of these theoreticaldebates, highlighting the shortcomings of social constructionismfor social work. The critical realist challenge to social constructionism,as articulated by the British philosopher Roy Bhaskar, is consideredand its relevance to social work formulated in terms of a returnto ‘depth’ in practice.     

Fostering supportive interactions in the neighbourhood: Using visualized narratives

The use of art (e.g. visualized narratives) in social work may stimulate dialogue between community members about family support in their neighbourhood. The Visualized Narratives on Parenting Interactions in the Neighbourhood (VN-PIN) were developed in order to foster this dialogue. The aim of this study was to evaluate the implementation of the VN-PIN in social work practice and to gain insight in mechanisms that stimulate dialogues supported by visualizations. A qualitative process evaluation was conducted to explore the use of the VN-PIN in various urban settings. We observed meetings (N = 14) where the VN-PIN was applied and interviewed professionals and community members (N = 81). The results of this study show that the VN-PIN intervention gives parents a voice and allows them to recognize and reflect on their own parenting behaviour, thereby contributing to mutual exchanges in a supportive community. The conclusion of this study is that the VN-PIN is a useful intervention that social work professionals can use to foster dialogues about parenting within diverse contexts in super-diverse neighbourhoods. The intervention fosters a supportive structure to share experiences of various community members. Future research is needed to further evaluate the experiences and satisfaction of community members with the intervention.     

Social Work, Liberty and Law

Correspondence to Professor John Williams, Department of Law, University of Wales, Aberystwyth, SY23 3DY, UK. E-mail: jow{at}aber.ac.uk Summary The relationship between law and social work is complex. Doeslaw assist practitioners to promote rights, or is it confinedto ensuring accountability and regulating practice? This articleexplores law's role, and its limitations, in promoting liberty,or more accurately ‘constitutional liberty’. Doeslaw provide practitioners with liberty-based values capable,if necessary, of legal enforcement? The paper argues that thereis no simple answer; law impacts on social work in differentways and there is little consistency across and within clientgroups. However, it concludes that law is one of the tools thatsocial workers can use to promote liberty.     

Foster and Residential Care Practices Compared

Correspondence to Dr Matthew Colton, Department of Social and Administrative Studies, Barnett House, Wellington Square, Oxford OX1 2ER Summary This paper reports what is, remarkably, the first systematic,in-depth, comparative study of foster and residential care practices.The overall research objectives were: (1) to delineate and comparecare practice in special foster homes (i.e., homes accommodatingchildren traditionally considered too old or disturbed for fosterplacement) and Children's Homes for older children in localauthority care; and (2) if possible, ascertain whether the responsesmanifested by children in such settings can be related to thecare practices they experience. The approach adopted was essentially sociological. A lengthyperiod of field-work in two local authorities featured the useof a range of research instruments and included the collectionof data on the following: the management of recurrent–mainlydaily–social events; children's community contacts; theprovision of physical amenities; the controls and sanctionsused by caretakers vis-à-vis children; the roles of caretakersand their behaviour and attitudes towards children; and thecharacteristics of children, their behaviour towards caretakers,perceptions of their social environments and progress duringplacement. Quantitative methods were used in data analysis becausethey provide a useful guide to the import of observed differencesbetween foster homes and Children's Homes. Care practice in the foster homes was, overall, significantlymore child-oriented than in the Children's Homes. Moreover,the responses of residential children appeared to fall shortof offering justification for the ways that the lives of suchchildren seemed to differ from those of foster children.     

Children's and young people's experiences in various residential arrangements: a longitudinal study to evaluate criteria for custody and residence decision making

Summary The child's welfare or the child's best interest is, in manycountries, the court's paramount consideration for determiningcustody and residence of a child after parental separation ordivorce. This longitudinal study evaluates the custody criterionchild's relationships and residence preferences. Based on aqualitative study design including interviews with childrenand parents, the experiences of 62 children of separated ordivorced parents in various residential arrangements are analysed.The main findings are: (i) a residential arrangement in accordancewith the child's relationships and residence preferences accordswith the child's welfare and represents a positive living situationwith loved people in the family and social environment; (ii)the personal relationships of the child are in no way static,but demonstrate a noticeable dynamic as they change under theinfluence of internal and external factors. Therefore a timelychange of residence, which occurs in accordance with the changedemotion preferences of the child, is beneficial; (iii) a residentialarrangement contrary to the child's relationships and residencepreferences represents for the child involved a difficult situation,which can lead to one of three different processes: adjustment,a trajectory of suffering or initiatives to change the livingsituation. This means that some children adjust, others experiencetrajectory processes of suffering, and those in the remainingcases act as competent social agents, who can autonomously representtheir own interests and pursue them in order to initiate orcontribute to a change of their residence. Findings of the studyare discussed, and suggestions are offered for substantive andprocedural laws to guarantee the child's welfare in custodyand residence settlements and for further research.     

The Reprofessionalization of Social Work: Collaborative Approaches for Achieving Professional Recognition

Correspondence to Dr Karen Healy, School of Social Work and Applied Human Sciences, Education Building, Level 7, The University of Sydney, Australia. E-mail: k.healy{at}social. uq.edu.au or Dr Gabrielle Meagher, Political Economy, School of Economics and Political Science, The University of Sydney, Australia. E-mail: G.Meagher{at}econ.usyd.edu.au Summary Contemporary practice theories assume that social workers havethe capacity to enact their work as a thoughtful, analytic andcreative activity, and that these capacities are, or shouldbe, recognized and supported in human services organizations.However, emerging evidence from the front line of social servicespractice suggests that, despite public policy rhetoric emphasizingservice quality, the practice environment is characterized bya lack of support for, if not outright hostility towards, professionalsocial work. In this paper we will consider how the social workprofession can collectively improve the recognition of theirwork as professional activity. We discuss the deprofessionalizationof social services work and analyse collaborative strategiesfor achieving recognition, specifically the formation of professionalassociations and trade unions. We will focus our discussionon emerging convergences between new professionalism and thenew political unionism. Finally, we consider how these new developmentscan enhance the industrial and cultural recognition of humanservices work.