Mother–Adolescent Conflict: Adolescent Goals,Maternal Perspective‐Taking,and Conflict Intensity

Younger and older adolescents were interviewed about their goals in recent disagreements with their mothers. Six goals were identified: instrumental (simply gaining their immediate desire); dyadic concern; achieving emotional support; autonomy; dominance; and nonengagement (avoidance of conflict). Younger adolescents reported significantly more instrumental and significantly fewer emotional support and dominance goals than did older adolescents. Maternal perspective‐taking predicted more dyadic concern and fewer dominance goals, as well as more nonengagement goals for younger adolescents. Dominance goals mediated the effect of maternal dyadic perspective‐taking on conflict intensity for older adolescents.     

Adolescents' Emotional Experiences of Mother–Adolescent Conflict Predict Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms

Research on adolescent emotion has generally focused on expressions of emotion; however, there are reasons to believe that adolescents' experiences of emotion may be related to adolescent development in unique and important ways. This study examined the relation of adolescents' emotional experiences of conflict with their mothers to their internalizing and externalizing symptoms at three time points, each a year apart. After participating in videotaped conflict negotiation tasks with their mothers, adolescents (N=80) watched the videotape of their interactions and used a joystick to make continuous ratings of how negative, positive, or neutral they felt during the discussions. Hierarchical Linear Modeling was used to assess relations among their continuous emotion ratings and their internalizing and externalizing symptoms 1 year before the interaction task, at the time of the interaction task, and 1 year later. Adolescents' externalizing symptoms at the time of the conflict task were associated with negative emotion that decreased across the conflict discussion. Relations between emotional experience and internalizing symptoms a year later were moderated by adolescent gender, revealing that a tolerance for increasing negative emotion predicts fewer future internalizing symptoms for girls. The importance of adolescents' ability to tolerate negative emotion during normal developmental conflicts is discussed.     

Mother–Infant Interaction and Child Brain Morphology: A Multidimensional Approach to Maternal Sensitivity

Emerging research suggests that normative variation in parenting quality relates to children's brain development. However, although the young brain is presumed to be especially sensitive to environmental influence, to our knowledge only two studies have examined parenting quality with infants as it relates to indicators of brain development, and both were cross‐sectional. This longitudinal study investigated whether different components of maternal sensitivity in infancy predicted the volume of two brain structures presumed to be particularly sensitive to early experience, namely the amygdala and the hippocampus. Three dimensions of sensitivity (Cooperation/Attunement, Positivity, Accessibility/Availability) were observed in 33 mother–infant dyads at 1 year of age and children underwent structural magnetic resonance imaging at age 10. Higher maternal Accessibility/Availability during mother–infant interactions was found to be predictive of smaller right amygdala volume, while greater maternal positivity was predictive of smaller bilateral hippocampal volumes. These longitudinal findings extend those of previous cross‐sectional studies and suggest that a multidimensional approach to maternal behavior could be a fruitful way to further advance research in this area, given that different facets of parenting might be differentially predictive of distinct aspects of neurodevelopment.     

Mother–Toddler Cortisol Synchrony Moderates Risk of Early Internalizing Symptoms

Cortisol synchrony is the degree to which mother–toddler cortisol levels are mutually regulated within a dyad. Synchrony's impact on toddler development is not well understood, so this study investigated how synchronous cortisol levels (reactivity and total concentration) in mother–toddler dyads moderate the association between risk factors (i.e., maternal worry, toddler inhibition) and early internalizing symptoms. Seventy mothers and their 2‐year‐old toddlers provided interpretable saliva samples. Behavioral observations were made to assess the toddler's temperament at age 2, and mothers reported on their toddler's internalizing symptoms when toddlers were 2 and 3 years old. Results suggest that mother–toddler synchrony in total cortisol concentration moderates the relation between risk factors and internalizing symptoms. Specifically, toddler inhibition and maternal worry were less associated with concurrent toddler internalizing symptoms when dyads demonstrated greater cortisol synchrony in total concentration. Further, synchrony in total cortisol levels marginally moderated the association between toddler inhibition and future internalizing symptoms, such that inhibited toddlers were less likely to demonstrate internalizing symptoms at age 3 when dyads demonstrated more cortisol synchrony. This suggests that cortisol synchrony may serve as an advantageous context that reduces the risk of developing of internalizing symptoms and augments the field's understanding of the implications of shared physiological responses within mother–toddler dyads.     

Associations Between Observed Mother–Adolescent Interactions and Adolescent Information Management

Associations between observed mother–adolescent interactions during a conflict task and adolescents’ information management strategies were examined in 108 primarily middle class, European‐American adolescents (M = 13.80 years, SD = 1.52) and their mothers. Teens who communicated more clearly disclosed more about personal and multifaceted activities, lied less about personal activities, and engaged in less avoidance regarding multifaceted and prudential activities. Mothers’ clear communication was associated with less adolescent disclosure and more avoidance about personal and multifaceted activities. Teens with more receptive mothers omitted less prudential information but avoided discussing prudential issues more. Maternal warmth was not associated with information management. The results highlight the need to distinguish between parent and teen behaviors and between affective quality and specific communicative behaviors.     

Maternal Age,Psychological Maturity,Parenting Cognitions,and Mother–Infant Interaction

In the context of the trend toward delayed childbearing, the aim of this study was to examine relations among maternal age and the quality of maternal interactive behavior at 7 months assessed using sensitivity and mind‐mindedness, while also considering whether age effects were attributable to psychological maturity and parenting cognitions. Participants were 150 Australian mothers (mean age 33‐years) and their firstborn infants who were participating in a prospective study of parenthood. Path analysis showed maternal age had both direct and indirect associations with maternal interactive behavior. Older mothers made more mind‐related comments to their infants. They were also more sensitive; however, this effect was indirect and explained by greater psychological maturity (hardiness) and a more internal locus of control with regard to parenting. Results suggest that older maternal age may confer some benefits in terms of responsive parenting in infancy.     

Mother–Child Conflict and Sibling Relatedness: A Test of Hypotheses From Parent–Offspring Conflict Theory

Parent–offspring conflict theory (POCT) has been underutilized in studies of human family dynamics. An implication of POCT is that the presence of siblings will increase conflict in biological parent–child dyads, and that half siblings will increase that conflict more than full siblings. Evidence consistent with this prediction was found in a longitudinal study of 236 early adolescent children and their mothers. Following parental disruption, the entry of younger maternal half siblings into the home was uniquely associated with elevated conflict between mothers and their biological children, independent of the effects of family size, socioeconomic status, and maternal depression. As predicted by the model, the effect of parental disruption on mother–child conflict was partially mediated by the entry of half siblings (but not stepfathers) into the home.     

Mother–Grandmother and Mother–Father Coparenting Across Time Among Mexican‐Origin Adolescent Mothers and Their Families

The current study examined mothers' reports of coparenting relationship dynamics (i.e., conflict, communication) within and between mother–father and mother–grandmother subsystems from 10 months postpartum to 5 years postpartum among 178 Mexican‐origin teen mothers (M age = 16.78 years; SD = 1.00). Within subsystems, more frequent mother–father coparenting conflict was associated with less frequent mother–father coparenting communication from 10 months to 5 years postpartum, and more frequent mother–father coparenting communication was associated with less frequent mother–father conflict from 3 to 4 years postpartum. Furthermore, more frequent mother–grandmother coparenting communication was associated with less frequent mother–grandmother conflict from 10 months to 2 years postpartum. Regarding relations across subsystems, more frequent mother–father coparenting conflict was associated with more frequent mother–grandmother conflict from 10 months to 2 years postpartum, as well as from 3 to 4 years postpartum. Findings have implications for future interventions focused on coparenting relationships within the context of adolescent parenthood.     

Racial Barrier Socialization and the Well‐Being of African American Adolescents: The Moderating Role of Mother–Adolescent Relationship Quality

Racial socialization has been suggested as an important factor in helping African American adolescents cope effectively with racism and discrimination. Although multiple studies have reported a positive link between racial pride socialization and psychological adjustment among African American youth, assessments of the association between adolescent adjustment and another dimension of racial socialization—racial barrier socialization—have yielded inconsistent findings. Using a sample of 190 African American adolescents, the present study focuses on the quality of mother–adolescent relationships as an indicator of affective context, and examines its moderating influence on the association between racial barrier socialization and adolescent adjustment. Regression analyses indicated that the link between racial barrier socialization and adolescent adjustment is moderated by mother–adolescent relationship quality. However, these associations varied by gender.     

The Interplay Between Tonal Synchrony and Social Engagement in Mother–Infant Interaction

This study explores the relationship between tonal synchrony and maternal‐infant social engagement based on free‐play recordings of 15 mothers and their 3‐month‐old infants in a laboratory setting. Moment‐by‐moment analyses on a microlevel were used to study social engagement and vocal interaction. We analysed and categorized 854 vocalization periods (mother‐only vocalizations, tonal interaction periods, nontonal interaction periods, and mutual silence). Tonal synchrony was analysed in terms of harmonic and pentatonic series based on pitch frequency analyses. Social engagement was microanalyzed in terms of matched and mismatched engagement states. ANOVA‐repeated measures revealed, most importantly, a significant relationship between TIPs and social interaction repair, which indicates the importance of tonal synchrony in the flow of social engagement in mother–infant dyads. Other significant relationships were found between (a) nTIPs/mismatch–mismatch, and, (b) MOV/affect loss. As mentioned in the discussion, the findings are suggestive for clinical applications (e.g., music therapy) and warrant further research.     

Attachment Style,Vagal Tone,and Empathy During Mother–Adolescent Interactions

We tested associations among empathic responsiveness, attachment style, and vagal tone (a physiologic index of emotion regulation) in 103 mother–adolescent dyads. Dyads discussed positive and negative topics and then separately reviewed a videotape of the interaction and rated their own and the other person's affect at one‐minute intervals. We used multilevel modeling to analyze the association between one's rating of the other person's affect and the other person's affect (empathic sensitivity), and the association between one's rating of the other person's affect and one's own affect (perceived concordance). Adolescents’ empathic responsiveness was predicted by attachment style, vagal tone, and interactions between them. Adolescents with the greatest empathic responsiveness had low levels of attachment insecurity and high levels of vagal tone.     

The Quality of Spontaneous Movements of Preterm Infants: Associations with the Quality of Mother–Infant Interaction

The assessment of the quality of infants’ spontaneous movements is a diagnostic tool for the young nervous system. We examined whether it relates to the quality of the interactions between infants born preterm and their mothers. Thirty‐nine healthy infants born preterm (M_{age in weeks} = 14.59, SD = 2.21; 38.46% female) and their mothers participated in the study. Infants’ quality of spontaneous movements was assessed using the General Movement Assessment according to Prechtl (Prechtl, Early Human Development 1990, 23, 151). A new measurement was employed to evaluate the following aspects of the mother–infant interaction: maternal sensitivity in the motor modality (i.e., when touching, picking up, holding, and putting down the infant), maternal sensitivity in the modalities of vocalization and eye contact, and infants’ positive engagement. Several aspects of infants’ quality of movements were associated with maternal sensitivity in the motor modality and infants’ positive engagement, but not with maternal sensitivity in the modalities of vocalization and eye contact. These findings suggest that the quality of infants’ spontaneous movements may explain some of the variability in the interactions between infants born preterm and their mothers. The results also highlight the importance of differentiating between the modalities of mothers’ behavior when assessing their sensitivity. Implications for research and practice with families of preterm infants are discussed.     

Distinguishing Mother–Infant Interaction From Stranger–Infant Interaction at 2, 4, and 6 Months of Age

Observers watched videotaped face‐to‐face mother–infant and stranger–infant interactions of 12 infants at 2, 4, or 6 months of age. Half of the observers saw each mother paired with her own infant and another infant of the same age (mother tapes) and half saw each infant paired with his or her mother and with a stranger (infant tapes). Observers were asked to judge which was the mother–infant dyad in each pair. Observers' accuracy improved as infants aged and was above chance for both mother and infant tapes when infants were 6 months. Differences between mother–infant and stranger–infant dyadic communication patterns also emerged as the infants aged. At 6 months, mother–infant dyads had more symmetrical communication and less asymmetrical communication than stranger–infant dyads.     

Mother–Adolescent Proficiency in a Common Language Facilitates Socialization Among Mexican‐Origin Families

The primary goal of this study was to test how mother and adolescent proficiency in a common language moderates the link from parenting to adolescent development. A sample of Mexican‐origin fifth‐grade adolescents (N = 674, 50% female) was measured longitudinally on self‐control and aggression. Mothers were rated on observed positive discipline, warmth, and harsh discipline. Positive discipline and warm parenting predicted increases in self‐control and decreases in aggression, but only among mother–adolescent dyads who were proficient in a common language. Harsh parenting predicted decreases in self‐control and increases in aggression, but only among dyads who were not proficient in a common language. Similar results were found in a conceptual replication among a second sample of 167 Mexican‐origin adolescents.     

Shyness,Preference for Solitude,and Adolescent Internalizing: The Roles of Maternal,Paternal, and Best‐Friend Support

The researchers examined differential outcomes related to two distinct motivations for withdrawal (preference for solitude and shyness) as well as the possibility that support from important others (mothers, fathers, and best friends) attenuate any such links. Adolescents (159 males, 171 females) reported on their motivations to withdraw, internalizing symptoms, and relationship quality in eighth grade, as well as their anxiety and depression in ninth grade. Using structural equation modeling, the authors found that maternal support weakened the association between shyness and internalizing problems; friend support weakened the association between preference for solitude and depression; and friend support strengthened the association between shyness and depression. Results suggest that shy adolescents may not derive the same benefits from supportive friendships as their typical peers.     

Interparental Relationship Sensitivity Leads to Adolescent Internalizing Problems: Different Genotypes,Different Pathways

Several studies have established that child interparental conflict evaluations link parent relationship functioning and adolescent adjustment. Using differential susceptibility theory and its vantage sensitivity complement as their framework, the authors examined differences between adolescents who vary in the DRD4 7 repeat genotype (i.e., 7+ vs. 7?) in how both interparental conflict and positivity affect adolescents' evaluations of interparental conflict (i.e., threat appraisals) and how these evaluations affect internalizing problems. Results from longitudinal multiple‐group path models using PROSPER data (N = 452) supported the hypothesis that threat appraisals for 7+ adolescents would be more affected by perceptions of interparental positivity compared to 7? adolescents; however, threat appraisals for 7+ adolescents were also less affected by interparental conflict. Among 7? adolescents, interparental conflict perceptions were associated with higher threat appraisals, and no association was found for perceptions of positivity. For adolescents of both genotypes, higher threat was associated with greater internalizing problems.     

Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms and Marital Relationship Functioning: The Mediating Role of Demand–Withdraw Communication Processes

Marital outcomes are associated with internalizing and externalizing symptoms; however, the processes by which these domains are associated with marital outcomes are not well understood. This study examined how demand–withdraw (DW) couple communication accounts for the association between symptoms of mental illness and marital distress. A mediational model was tested in a sample of 100 newlywed couples to determine: (a) whether internalizing and externalizing symptoms influenced own and partner's level of DW communication, and (b) whether this communication pattern was associated with relationship outcomes, including lower marital satisfaction and presence of conflict. Results suggested that DW communication had significant effects on both partner's marital outcomes and mediated the association between externalizing symptoms (for husbands) and marital distress.     

Maternal Work–Family Conflict and Psychological Distress: Reciprocal Relationships Over 8 Years

The relationships between employed mothers' work–family conflict and psychological distress are unlikely to be static or one way. Using longitudinal data, the authors investigated reciprocal effects between work–family conflict and psychological distress across 8 years of the family life cycle. They modeled cross‐lagged structural equations over 5 biennial waves of data, in 4 overlapping samples of Australian mothers reentering work between child ages 0–1 to 8–9 (N range: 1,027–2,449). The findings revealed that work–family conflict and psychological distress are distinctive aspects of mothers' well‐being that influence each other over time. Reciprocal influences were not confined to one period of parenting but continued as children grew older. Associations persisted after controlling for a range of work and family characteristics, and there was no evidence of mediation by family socioeconomic status, maternal age, or job quality. The findings suggest that employed mothers may benefit from policies and workplace practices that both promote maternal well‐being and reduce conflicts between employment and raising children.     

Infants of Depressed Mothers Show Reduced Gaze Activity During Mother–Infant Interaction at 4 Months

Gaze is one of the main means of communication in young infants, and it has been shown to be important for subsequent socio‐emotional and cognitive development. Maternal depression is a well‐known risk factor for disrupting mother–infant interactions, but findings regarding gaze behavior in infants of depressed versus nondepressed mothers have been ambiguous. In this study, we examined gaze duration and activity in a sample of 27 infants of mothers with postpartum depression (PPD) and 49 infants of nondepressed mothers. Maternal depressive symptoms were assessed with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, and diagnoses were confirmed in clinical interview. Infant gaze was assessed during 4‐month face‐to‐face interactions using continuous timed‐event coding with high temporal resolution. Although we found no differences in gaze duration, infants of PPD mothers had both significantly less Gaze On and also less Gaze Off events. Findings suggest that PPD is related to reduced gaze activity during mother–infant interaction in 4‐month‐olds. This reduced activity may have long‐term negative consequences for child development.