The Present State of Sociological Theory*

Sociology has fractured into a number of schools, each claiming to be distinct from the others and to have its own theory. The trouble with the theories is that most of them fail to make their general propositions explicit. Were they made explicit, all the theories would turn out to contain at least the general propositions of behavioral psychology, and the intellectual unification of sociology could begin. The paper discusses the reasons why many sociologists are reluctant to accept this argument. It also discusses other claimants to the status of theory, including “pattern” theories, functional theories (one of which is really behavioral), and the difficulties created by some uses of the concept, social structure.     

Dynamic exchange networks

Considering the theoretical and empirical untenability of static exchange networks, researchers have asked how exchange outcomes change when links are added or deleted. The present paper assesses the validity of seemingly sensible propositions concerning the effects of adding and deleting a link on (i) the payoffs of the actors in the link, (ii) the payoffs of actors in neighboring links and (iii) the variance of payoffs in the exchange network. The propositions were examined by applying expected value theory (EVT) to all 13,597 networks up to size 8. All propositions were falsified. Some falsifications of propositions could be attributed to EVTs prediction that actors use sub-optimal exchange relations. Since other well-known theories of exchange, like power-dependence theory and network exchange theory, also predict that actors use sub-optimal relations, these results are robust to selection of the theory of exchange.     

STATE INCORPORATION OF MIGRANTS AND THE REPRODUCTION OF A MIDDLEMAN MINORITY AMONG INDOCHINESE REFUGEES

This article examines how state incorporation reproduces a middleman minority group's occupational role after the migration of that group to the United States. An extension of middleman minority theory is developed to explain why ethnic Chinese refugees from former Indochina are overrepresented in intermediary social service occupations in comparison to Vietnamese, Laotian, and Cambodian refugees. Three propositions are developed and tested focusing on the conflict engendered by an intermediary occupation, staff recruitment patterns, and role orientations among different ethnic groups. Data from participant observation and interviews are used to focus on actual behavior in the workplace, whereas most studies of occupational concentration by ethnic groups have examined the sector level.     

Developing a sociological theory for the empirical understanding of terrorism

This article represents an attempt to construct a sociological theory of terrorism by means of six theoretical propositions. Taken together these six propositions attempt to explain counterhegemonic terrorism and the dynamics of organizations that participate in such political violence. The terrorism literature shows three emerging trends: spectacularization, criminalization, and fragmentation as explanations for terrorism. In contrast to these atheoretical trends, the theoretical propositions are offered around the themes of counterhegemony, resource mobilization, counter-institutionalization, power-prestige dynamics, ritualization, and social solidarity. The conclusion suggests that any predictions of terrorism are problematic but that these six theoretical principles outlined herein could offer deeper insight into the sociological phenomena of terrorism.     

A Comparative Analysis of Propositions Describing Social Movement Organizations*

Natural history, observational, and interview data from a study of two anti-pornography crusades and the social movement organizations which created and directed them are used to assess nine propositions formulated by Zald and Ash (1966) concerning the structure and dynamics of social movement organizations. The Zald-Ash propositions were formulated from the literature on national, established social movement organizations. This paper explores the applicability of the propositions to those organizations which are small and emerging. The propositions are generally supported. Discrepancies are accounted for by the significant influence of leadership orientation, goal specificity, and incentive structure in determining other structural and dynamic characteristics of small or emerging social movement organizations.     

The Tripartite Structure of Social Science Analysis

The goal of sociology, and all social science, is to produce reliable knowledge about human behavioral and social phenomena. To reach that goal, we undertake three kinds of activities: theoretical work, empirical work, and, even more basic, we develop frameworks that assemble the fundamental questions together with the fundamental tools that will be used to address them. This article examines the three sets of activities and their interrelations. Both deductive and nondeductive theory are highlighted, as are three kinds of empirical work—testing the predictions of deductive theories, testing the propositions produced by nondeductive theories, and extratheoretical measurement and estimation. Illustrations are drawn from the fields of status, justice, and migration.     

THEORIES OF ETHNIC SOCIAL DISTANCE: COMPARATIVE EMPIRICAL TESTS FOR THREE DISTINCT ETHNIC GROUPS

Social science theories of ethnic division and antipathy are tested empirically using survey and zip code data for representative samples of whites, African Americans, and Mexican Americans in Texas. Ordered logistic regression tests estimate the effects of theoretically relevant variables on probabilities of racial and ethnic out-group social distance. Competing social science theories of ethnic and racial social distance are tested for multiple groups. Statistical support is found for group attachment/identity theories and realistic group conflict theories in explaining variance in out-group social closeness. The socioeconomic theory was not found to be an important predictor of out-group social closeness.     

Socio-structural and individualistic theories of migration. Elements of a comparison of theories]

German contributions to the theory of migration are reviewed. Specifically, the author examines the theory of structural and anomic tension developed by Hoffmann-Nowotny and the action-oriented analysis of the assimilation process developed by Esser. These two theories are compared, and it is noted that although both theories arrive at competing propositions on the theoretical level, there are strong convergences at the level of the derived causal models. The extent to which models involving national choices can overcome the theoretical weaknesses identified in migration research is also considered.     

Toward a Theory of Fertility and Ethnic Social Capital

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to develop a conceptual model of ethnic fertility differentials that incorporates the intersection of both the macro societal influences as well as the micro actor level influences. It first contextualizes ethnic fertility differentials within the global fertility decline literature. Then it reviews the extant theories of fertility decline. It then turns to an examination of fertility choices in the developed world. A summary of three major approaches to ethnic fertility differentials is examined and then incorporated into a more eclectic perspective provided by Goldscheider. Finally, this paper merges the Goldscheider perspective with the social capital perspective, as applied to fertility decisions, into a conceptual model of ethnic fertility differentials. Lastly, the new conceptual model is used to reflect upon the current state of global fertility decline.     

Foreigners and Outsiders: Exclusionist Attitudes towards Labour Migrants in Israel

This paper examines theoretical propositions regarding the social mechanisms that produce hostility and discriminatory attitudes towards out‐group populations. Specifically, we compare the effect of perceptions of socio‐economic and national threats, social contact and prejudice on social distance expressed towards labour migrants. To do so, we examine exclusionary views held by majority and minority groups (Jews and Arabs) towards non‐Jewish labour migrants in Israel. Data analysis is based on a survey of the adult Israeli population based on a stratified sample of 1,342 respondents, conducted in Israel in 2007. Altogether, our results show that Israelis (both Jews and Arabs) are resistant to accepting and integrating foreigners into Israeli society. Among Jews, this is because the incorporation of non‐Jews challenges the definition of Israel as a Jewish state and poses a threat to the homogeneity of the nation. Among Arabs, this is probably due to threat and competition over resources. The meanings of the findings are discussed within the unique ethno‐national context of Israeli society and in light of sociological theories on ethnic exclusionism.     

A reexamination of agency theory assumptions: extensions and extrapolations

In this paper, we discuss agency theory in the context of the individual principal and agent, and also in the context of the organization and its groups. Agency theory is examined in the context of goal orientation, obligation and reciprocity, risk, and self-interest. We offer propositions given agency theory’s assumptions. We also extend agency theory and offer alternative propositions based on a relaxing of agency theory’s assumptions. In relaxing the assumptions of agency theory, insights from outside the agency literature, specifically from behavioral theories are used. Implications of agency theory and the extension of this theory are also discussed in relation to outcomes associated with economic exchanges.     

Administrative structure theory and evaluation: An example from the Community Services Administration

Concern about the inability of existing theories of utilization to explain the use (or lack thereof) of evaluation research on policymaking in public agencies leads the authors to postulate an “administrative structure theory.” Utilization is then explained, in large part, by the structure and behavior of administrative agencies. Administrative structure theory rests on four propositions which relate evaluation research to the development and maintenance sub-systems (within the administrative structure). These propositions are illustrated in the context of the recently abolished U.S. Community Services Administration.     

Intermarriage of Frontier Immigrant, Religious and Residential Groups: An Examination of Macrostructural Assimilation

Intermarriage among heterogeneous social groups has often been studied as a process of assimilation. The present paper extends this research through a unique application of macro-structural propositions of intermarriage (Blau et al., 1982) to a nineteenth century American frontier population. Variants of these propositions are presented, used to address age patterns of nuptiality, and tested through a longitudinal application. Results support the utility of macro-structural theories in analyses encompassing initial community formation as well as assimilation of later arriving immigrants. Analyses illustrate both the assimilation of initially arriving immigrant groups on the frontier and the initial emergence of new heterogeneities in the established native population and later arriving immigrants.     

The Threat of the “Other”: Ethnic Competition and Racial Interest

Racial conflict has been at the center of US society since its inception. Various theories have tried to explain why racial conflict arises and what the motivating factors are. The aim of this article is to examine one of these theories––ethnic competition––by reviewing the sociological literature from the 1970s to present that focuses on racial interest, ethnic competition, and racial threat.     

Emergency purchasing situations: Implications for consumer decision-making

This article introduces the emergency purchasing situation (EPS) as a distinct buying context. EPSs stem from an unexpected event (unanticipated need or timing of a need), as well as high product importance, which are associated with a short time frame for consumer decision-making. Our conceptual review integrates largely disconnected strands of research and theories relevant to EPSs and offers a series of independent propositions to understand how these situations might affect consumer decision-making, specifically heuristic versus reflective information processing in product evaluation. We discuss changes induced by the buying context in terms of regulatory focus, perceived time pressure, and stress. Our propositions further account for purchase involvement in the form of product importance, purchase risk, and product substitutability. Finally, we consider how individual differences (expertise and trust) may affect evaluation processes. Our discussion reflects on the implications of our model, avenues for future research, and how an understanding of EPSs can be used to improve managerial practice.     

Premarital Sexual Intercourse and Axiomatic Theory Construction*

Axiomatic theory construction was used in this study to analyze the likelihood of participation in premarital sexual intercourse by college women. The sample consisted of 754 never-married female students enrolled in a midwestern, residential university who responded to a sexual attitudes and behavior survey. Forty-eight empirical propositions concerning premarital sexual intercourse were tested, nineteen of which were found to be statistically significant. Three derived propositions were reformulated from these findings, which in turn were utilized to develop two middle-range theories: commitment theory and cultural milieu theory. These theories clearly demonstrate the role of changing personal and societal attitudes toward sexuality and perceived partner commitment in the decision to become sexually active.     

The context of employment discrimination: interpreting the findings of a field experiment

Although field experiments have documented the contemporary relevance of discrimination in employment, theories developed to explain the dynamics of differential treatment cannot account for differences across organizational and institutional contexts. In this article, I address this shortcoming by presenting the main empirical findings from a multi‐method research project, in which a field experiment of ethnic discrimination in the Norwegian labour market was complemented with forty‐two in‐depth interviews with employers who were observed in the first stage of the study. While the experimental data support earlier findings in documenting that ethnic discrimination indeed takes place, the qualitative material suggests that theorizing in the field experiment literature have been too concerned with individual and intra‐psychic explanations. Discriminatory outcomes in employment processes seems to be more dependent on contextual factors such as the number of applications received, whether requirements are specified, and the degree to which recruitment procedures are formalized. I argue that different contexts of employment provide different opportunity structures for discrimination, a finding with important theoretical and methodological implications.     

Black lives matter,capital, and ideology: Spiraling out from India

Piketty's propositions for arresting inequality are discussed through the lens of racism/casteism. We focus on the case of India's George Floyds—the persistence of caste and tribe oppression under economic growth in India—through the insights of our long‐term ethnographic research. We show that inequalities are intimately tied to dynamics of capitalist accumulation in which racial/ethnic/caste/tribe and gender difference is crucial. We argue for an analysis that truly integrates ideology and the dynamics of political economy. The wider implications, we argue are political; they lie in the question of what is to be done. Despite his ambitions to decenter economics, Piketty remains trapped in the logic of economics for what he proposes are essentially economic reforms within capitalism. Moreover, ideological change cannot be a matter of choice only, and cannot be challenged solely at the level of ideas around economic inequality. It will also have to be fought as a direct contest of oppressive ideologies such as racism, casteism, and patriarchy, leading to new counter‐hegemonic positions. We will argue that this takes us from a global history of ideology to a global anthropology of praxis. A first step is to genuinely center conversations with disciplines like anthropology, sociology, and subaltern history studying people and voices from below and from the margins, and the perspectives of scholars and activists from below and from the margins.     

Reference-Other Support and Ethnic Attitudes as Predictors of Intergroup Behavior*

A number of general propositions are proposed concerning the manner in which reference-others and ethnic attitudes influence intergroup behavior. In a laboratory setting, it is shown that the influence of individual reference-others upon behavior is partially determined by certain structural properties of these others which are labeled importance, visibility, centrality, legitimacy, and control. Among other findings, it is also shown that the relative influence of the two predictor variables depends upon the type of activity considered. An explanation for these results is framed in terms of the reference-other properties mentioned above.