Gambling Responsibly: Who Does It and To What End?

Numerous responsible gambling (RG) strategies are promoted to assist consumers to “gamble responsibly”. However, consumer adoption of RG strategies, how this varies by gambler risk group, and whether usage is associated with non-problematic gambling are largely unknown. This study aimed to (1) determine how use of RG-related strategies differs amongst regular gamblers by gambler risk group; and (2) identify RG-related strategies whose usage predicts non-problem/low risk gambling. Regular Australian gamblers on high-risk products (N = 860), recruited through gambling venues and an online wagering operator, were surveyed about their use of RG strategies promoted on the website of their jurisdiction’s main RG agency. Knowledge of RG strategies was reasonably high amongst all gambler risk groups, but lower-risk groups were more likely to use RG strategies. A logistic regression correctly predicted 82.1 % of lower-risk gamblers and 77.2 % of higher-risk gamblers. Predictors of lower-risk gambling included: greater confidence in their understanding of RG; endorsement of lower gambling expenditure and frequency limits; fewer erroneous gambling beliefs; being less likely to gamble to win money, challenge their skills/beat the odds, or forget about worries and stresses; and being more likely to gamble for pleasure/entertainment. Lower-risk gamblers were more likely to set a money limit in advance of gambling and to balance their gambling with other activities. These findings contribute to understanding which strategies are favoured by different risk groups, and which are associated with safer levels of gambling. They can guide consumer information aimed at enhancing RG consumption and future research on RG consumption.     

Gambling Participation and Problems Among Employees at a University Health Center

This study evaluated the frequency and intensity of gambling behaviors among employees at an academic health center. Employees were sent an anonymous questionnaire assessing demographic characteristics, participation in gambling activities, and gambling-related problems. Of the 904 respondents, 96% reported gambling in their lifetimes, with 69% gambling in the past year, 40% in the past two months, and 21% in the past week. The most common forms of gambling were lottery and scratch tickets, slot machines, card playing, sports betting, bingo, and track. Only 1.2% of the sample reported gambling on the internet. Using scores on the South Oaks Gambling Screen, 3.0% of the respondents were classified as Level 2 (or problem) gamblers, and an additional 1.8% were Level 3 (or pathological) gamblers. Compared to Level 1 (non-problem) gamblers, Level 2 and Level 3 gamblers were more likely to be male, single, and employed full-time, and to have lower income and education. About half of the Level 2 and Level 3 gamblers reported interest in an evaluation of their gambling behaviors and treatment interventions. These data suggest the need to screen for gambling problems in health care professionals and to provide gambling-specific treatments.     

Brief Communication: “If You Do Not Gamble, Check This Box”: Perceptions of Gambling Behaviors

Most adults in the U.S. have participated in one or more gambling activities. However, many people engage in gambling activities without considering themselves as gamblers. Four hundred and forty-nine university students returned surveys about their participation in gambling activities. After completing a questionnaire recording the style and frequency of gambling participated in, respondents were asked to indicate whether or not they gambled. Results indicated that gamblers participated in twice as many forms of gambling activities as those who classified themselves as non-gamblers. Scratch tickets and lottery tickets were not generally considered gambling unless purchased frequently. Casino visits, bingo, dog races, football pools, golf matches, local poker games, and other card games were more likely to be viewed as gambling, especially when engaged in frequently. Subjects who had gambled on at least one occasion with bookies, dice games, video poker in a bar, dog or cock fights, or off track betting almost always identified themselves as gamblers. It is recommended that further research be conducted to clarify the gambling activities, and frequency of those activities, that influence a person's perceptions of gambling.     

Lessons from the Grey Area: A Closer Inspection of At-risk Gamblers

The study takes a closer look at at-risk gamblers, with the objective to see how they differ from no-risk gamblers. The data comes from a national gambling survey in 2002, and the age group is 15–74 years. The sample consists of 4188 current gamblers with no current gambling problems or pathology. The analysis includes cross-tabulations and a logistic regression. The results show that at-risk gamblers differed substantially from no-risk gamblers in terms of demographic characteristics, gambling behaviour and the presence of other assumed risk factors. Demographic segments with a higher risk of falling into the at-risk group are men, young people, divorced or single people, and non-western immigrants. Furthermore, gambling problems in the family, beginners luck and misconceptions about winning chances significantly increased the odds for at-risk gambling. The study concludes that at-risk gamblers deserve more attention from research, that their similarity with problem gamblers increases the likelihood that many of them will eventually develop a gambling problem, and that their tendency to be superstitious about winning chances might be exploited in preventive work.     

Treatment Goal Selection for Female Pathological Gambling: A Comparison of Abstinence and Controlled Gambling

The current study was an exploratory investigation of the selection of controlled gambling as a goal of treatment for female pathological gambling. Specifically, it aimed to explore: 1) the popularity of controlled gambling as a goal of treatment; 2) the reasons pathological gamblers select abstinence and controlled gambling as goals of treatment; and 3) the characteristics of pathological gamblers attracted to abstinence and controlled gambling. The sample comprised 85 female pathological gamblers attending a cognitive-behavioural treatment program for pathological gambling. The selection of controlled gambling by one-third (34%) of the sample suggests that, at least in the Australian context, controlled gambling is a relatively popular goal of treatment for female pathological gamblers. In this study, the only differences between treatment-seeking female pathological gamblers selecting abstinence and controlled gambling were that those selecting controlled gambling were older and were less likely to endorse the belief that problematic gambling is a disease or affliction that can only be overcome by lifelong abstinence. Further research investigating the characteristics of pathological gamblers associated with controlled gambling as both a goal and outcome of treatment is required in order to ensure that treatment-seeking pathological gamblers can make an informed decision regarding their goal selection.     

The Experience of Gambling and its Role in Problem Gambling

This paper reports on the results of a psychological study conducted in Ontario, Canada, that attempted to answer the question of why some people develop gambling problems while others do not. A group of social gamblers (n = 38), sub-clinical problem gamblers (n = 33) and pathological gamblers (n = 34) completed a battery of questionnaires. Compared to non-problem gamblers, pathological gamblers were more likely to report experiencing big wins early in their gambling career, stressful life events, impulsivity, depression, using escape to cope with stress and a poorer understanding of random events. We grouped these variables into three risk factors: cognitive/experiential, emotional and impulsive and tested the extent to which each risk factor could differentiate non-problem and pathological gamblers. Each risk factor correctly identified about three-quarters of the pathological gamblers. More than half (53%) of the pathological gamblers had elevated scores on all three risk factors. Interestingly, 60% of the sub-clinical cases had elevated scores on only one risk factor. The results are interpreted in terms of a bio-psycho-social model of gambling addiction.     

Economic mobility moderates the effect of relative deprivation on financial gambling motives and disordered gambling

This study examined whether a positive association between personal relative deprivation and disordered gambling severity is mediated by the motivation to gamble for financial gain. We hypothesized that this would occur specifically among people who perceived a low personal capacity for upward economic mobility via conventional means of advancement. A sample of community gamblers (N = 196) completed measures of personal relative deprivation, perceptions about upward economic mobility, gambling motivations (financial, coping, enhancement and social) and disordered gambling severity. The predicted moderated mediation model was observed – among people who perceived a low capacity for upward economic mobility, relative deprivation predicted disordered gambling severity via the motivation to gamble for financial gain. This indirect effect did not hold among people who perceived a high capacity for upward mobility. These findings suggest the importance of addressing beliefs about upward economic mobility in gambling prevention and intervention strategies. Among gamblers who feel relatively deprived, it may be advantageous to highlight feasible avenues for upward economic mobility that do not involve gambling.     

Factors Associated with Gamblers: A Population-based Cross-sectional Study of South Australian Adults

Objective To determine, using a random telephone survey, the prevalence of various gambling activities among South Australian adults, the prevalence of adult problem gamblers using the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) instrument, and to examine the problem gamblers by demographic and health-related risk factors.Method A random representative sample of South Australian adults selected from the Electronic White Pages. Overall, 6045 interviews were conducted (73.1% response rate) using Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI) technology.Results Overall, 75.6% (95% CI: 74.5–76.7) of respondents had participated in at least one gambling activity during the last 12 months and 2.0% (95% CI: 1.7–2.4) were identified to be problem gamblers. A wide range of factors was associated with problem gambling at a univariate level, when compared to frequent gamblers. The logistic regression analysis highlighted that problem gamblers were more likely to speak a language other than English, be employed part time and a smoker when compared to frequent gamblers. Problem gamblers were also more likely to have a mental health condition (according to the Kessler 10), have had suicidal thoughts and know of services for gambling problems.Conclusion There is a wide range of characteristics associated with problem gambling in South Australia. All of these factors need addressing during policy development to assist problem gamblers.     

It’s Not What You Know, but How You Use It: Statistical Knowledge and Adolescent Problem Gambling

This paper examined the nature of irrational gambling-related cognitions in a sample of 926 adolescents (mean age = 14.5 years) sampled from Australian schools. Students were differentiated according to gambling status and administered a series of items that assessed their understanding of objective odds, the nature of randomness, the role of skill in gambling, and the perceived profitability of gambling. The results confirmed previous findings that problem gamblers tend to be more irrational in their perceptions, as indicated by stronger beliefs in the role of skilful play in chance activities, and that gambling is a potentially profitable activity. However, counter intuitively, problem gamblers did not appear to have any poorer understanding of objective probabilities. These results are discussed in terms of Sevigny and Ladouceur’s (2004) concept of cognitive switching as well as psychological research concerning the role of emotional and motivational factors in the development of an illusion of control. The implications of these findings for gambling education programs are discussed.

Gender Differences in Characteristics of Chinese Treatment-Seeking Problem Gamblers

A total of 952 (841 men and 111 women) Chinese treatment-seeking problem gamblers completed self-report assessment forms. Female in contrast to male gamblers were more likely to be older, married, less educated, and without employment. Female gamblers also started gambling at an older age, had a shorter gambling history, preferred casino and mahjong gambling, and reported more somatic complaints and suicidal thoughts. Male and female gamblers accumulated similar amount of gambling debt and reported an average of 12 gambling-related problems on the Chinese version of the South Oaks Gambling Screen [Lesieur and Blume (Am J Psychiatry 144:1184–1188, 1987)]. Both groups were similarly troubled by their indebtedness, inability to control gambling, and gambling-related interpersonal problems. However, female gamblers had fewer means to pay their gambling debt. Given that significant gender-related differences were observed in Chinese problem gamblers, prevention and treatment services should attend to specific needs of male and female gamblers.     

Assessing the differential impacts of online,mixed, and offline gambling

The emergence of new behaviours associated with communication technologies has prompted questions about the evolution of gambling in the population. The development of online gambling gave rise to public health concerns back 20 years ago. Current knowledge indicates that online gamblers generally tend to show more psychosocial problems than offline gamblers. But those portraits tend to neglect the differences between pure and mixed online gamblers. The goal of this research is to assess if, and to what extent, online gambling generates more harmful impacts on the health and well-being in a sample of adult gamblers in Québec. The propensity score matching method was chosen to assess the variable prevalence of impacts on a sample of 810 regular gamblers recruited from an online panel. They were divided into sub-groups: pure online gamblers (n = 143), mixed online gamblers (n = 125), and a control group of offline gamblers (n = 542). The study has revealed that among online gamblers and their entourage, online gambling does, in fact, result in an extra burden of impacts in several aspects of their lives: work, relationships, mental/physical health, finances, quality of life, and problem gambling according to the Canadian Problem Gambling Index. Results also show that combined with offline gambling, online gambling significantly increases the burden of impacts in terms of both the number and intensity of impacts. This is the first empirical study using propensity score matching to asses the incremental impacts of online gambling by separating pure and mixed gamblers and to compare them to offline gamblers.     

Pre/Early Adolescent Onset of Gambling and Psychosocial Problems in Treatment-Seeking Pathological Gamblers

This study examined the association between pre- or early-adolescent onset of gambling and severity of gambling and psychosocial problems in treatment-seeking adult pathological gamblers. A total of 236 pathological gamblers entering outpatient treatment completed the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) and the Addiction Severity Index (ASI). Using a quartile split procedure, gamblers who began gambling during their pre- or early-adolescent years (mean age of 10.5 years; 1st quartile) were compared to gamblers who began gambling later in life (mean age of 23.0 years; 2nd to 4th quartiles). Compared to later onset gamblers, pre/early adolescent onset gamblers reported increased severity of psychiatric, family/social, and substance abuse problems on the ASI. They were more likely to report cognitive problems (trouble understanding, concentrating, or remembering), suicidal ideation, and a history of inpatient psychiatric treatment, and were less likely to be satisfied with their current living situation. Pre/early adolescent onset gamblers also reported earlier age of initiation of drinking, and were more likely to have received treatment for an alcohol use disorder, and to have used cannabis and cocaine in their lifetimes. Taken together, these data suggest that pre/early adolescent-onset of gambling may be a risk factor for later-life psychiatric, family/social, and substance abuse problems in treatment-seeking pathological gamblers.     

Characteristics of Older Adult Problem Gamblers Calling a Gambling Helpline

Background Few investigations have characterized groups of older adults with gambling problems, and published reports are currently limited by small samples of older adult problem gamblers. Gambling helplines represent a widespread mechanism for assisting problem gamblers to move into treatment settings. Given data from older adult problem gamblers in treatment, we hypothesized that older as compared with younger adult problem gamblers calling a gambling helpline would be less likely to report gambling-related problems.Design and methods Logistic regression analyses were performed on data obtained from January 1, 2000 to December 31, 2001, inclusive, from callers with gambling problems (N = 1,084) contacting the Connecticut Council on Problem Gambling Helpline.Results Of the 1,018 phone calls used in the logistic regression analyses, 168 (16.5%) were from older adults and 850 (83.5%) from younger adults. Age-related differences were observed in demographic features, types and patterns of gambling reported as problematic, gambling-related problems and psychiatric symptoms, substance use problems, patterns of indebtedness, and family histories of addictive disorders. Older as compared with younger adult problem gamblers were more likely to report having lower incomes, longer durations of gambling, fewer types of problematic gambling, and problems with casino slot machine gambling and less likely to report gambling-related anxiety, family problems, illegal behaviors and arrests, drug problems, indebtedness to bookies or acquaintances, family histories of drug abuse, and problems with casino table gambling.Conclusions Older as compared with younger adult problem gamblers calling a gambling helpline differ on many clinically relevant features. The findings suggest the need for improved and unique prevention and treatment strategies for older adults with gambling problems.     

Gambling and Problem Gambling Among Recently Sentenced Women in New Zealand Prisons

Ninety-four recently sentenced women prisoners were interviewed to assess aspects of their gambling involvement, problem gambling and relationships between gambling and criminal offending. A third of the women, on the basis of their SOGS-R scores, were assessed as lifetime probable pathological gamblers and just under a quarter were assessed as probable pathological gamblers during the 6 months prior to imprisonment. For women prisoners, a preference for non-casino gaming machines and housie were predictive of problem gambling. Relative to non-problem gamblers, problem gamblers experienced higher rates of childhood conduct disorder and current non-psychotic mental disorder. Just over a quarter of prisoners and a half of the problem gamblers had committed a crime to obtain money to gamble. Few women said their early offending or convictions related to gambling. It was concluded that most women were “criminals first and problem gamblers second” rather than people whose offending careers commenced as a consequence of problem gambling. However, the extent of problem gambling-related offending among the women prisoners highlights the potential for comprehensive assessment and treatment programs in prison to reduce recidivism and other adverse impacts of problem gambling and gambling-related offending.     

Aboriginal card gamblers and non-card gamblers: do they differ?

Many Indigenous populations engage in traditional gambling games, but little is known about their contemporary usage or the characteristics of people who participate. This paper presents the first quantitative study of traditional Indigenous Australian card gambling. The aim of this research was to compare Indigenous Australian card gamblers with non-card gamblers in terms of socio-demographic characteristics, gambling behaviour and motivations, gambling cognitions, gambling consequences, substance use while gambling and problem gambling severity. A gambling survey was conducted at Indigenous festivals, in several communities and online. Within a sample of 1001 gamblers, 414 people had gambled on traditional card games in the previous 12 months. Many card gamblers commenced gambling while young, were highly involved in both cards and commercial gambling and gambled because most of their family and friends also gamble. An important difference revealed here is that card gamblers gamble on more forms of commercial gambling than non-card gamblers. Gambling appears as a deep-seated habit in some participants' lives and although the proportion classified as problem gamblers is high in this sample the card gamblers held more realistic cognitions about chances of winning than did the non-card gamblers.     

Gambling and Problem Gambling among Recently Sentenced Male Prisoners in Four New Zealand Prisons

Recently sentenced inmates in four New Zealand male prisons (N = 357) were interviewed to assess their gambling involvement, problem gambling and criminal offending. Frequent participation in and high expenditure on continuous forms of gambling prior to imprisonment were reported. Nineteen percent said they had been in prison for a gambling-related offence and most of this offending was property-related and non-violent. On the basis of their SOGS-R scores, 21% were lifetime probable pathological gamblers and 16% were probable pathological gamblers during the six months prior to imprisonment. Of the “current” problem gamblers, 51% reported gambling-related offending and 35% had been imprisoned for a crime of this type. Gambling-related offending increased with problem gambling severity. However, only five percent of problem gamblers said their early offending was gambling-related. The large majority reported other types of offending at this time. Few men had sought or received help for gambling problems prior to imprisonment or during their present incarceration. This highlights the potential for assessment and treatment programs in prison to reduce recidivism and adverse effects of problem gambling and gambling-related offending.     

The Stubborn Logic of Regular Gamblers: Obstacles and Dilemmas in Cognitive Gambling Research

Cognitive studies into gambling behaviour have shown that many gamblers misinterpret the odds of gambling activities, hold false beliefs about skill and luck, and over-estimate their subjective chances of success. Accordingly, providing accurate information about gambling in venues, or on slot-machines, would appear to be a sensible way to enhance the 'safety' of gambling products. Unfortunately, such ideas for educating gamblers may be difficult to implement in practice because of limitations and conceptual dilemmas in the cognitive literature. Irrational beliefs about gambling may be difficult to falsify, are often highly idiosyncratic and context-bound, and may stem more from the selective misuse of information than from a lack of knowledge about gambling activities. Drawing evidence from recent research into gambling-related cognitions, this paper examines the key elements of irrational-belief systems, and how this work might usefully inform the design of future consumer information initiatives.     

The Relationship of Problem Gambling to Criminal Behavior in a Sample of Canadian Male Federal Offenders

This article examines the prevalence of moderate and severe problem gambling in a sample of 254 incarcerated Canadian male federal offenders (completion rate of 39.0%). The prevalence of disordered gambling was measured using the PGSI, DSM-IV-TR, and SOGS that yielded estimates of 9.4%, 6.3%, and 13.0%, respectively. Severe problem gamblers were significantly more likely to have committed income producing offences, but were neither more nor less likely than other offenders to have committed violent offences. The majority of severe problem gamblers (65.2%) and a fifth of the moderate problem gamblers (20.0%) reported that their criminal activity was a result of their gambling (e.g., to pay off debts). Based on these findings there appears to be a need to offer problem gambling treatment services to offenders in order to help them break the cycle of gambling, debt and crime.     

Self-generated motives for gambling in two population-based samples of gamblers

In the present study, self-generated responses to a question regarding reasons for gambling from two epidemiological surveys were combined and placed into another earlier motivational model for alcohol use, adapted for gambling. Of the 3601 reasons, 954 could be categorised into the model's categories: (a) coping motives (internal, negative reinforcement); (b) enhancement motives (internal, positive reinforcement); and (c) social motives (external, positive reinforcement). Results indicate that coping gamblers experienced greater gambling severity and psychopathology, enhancement gamblers were most likely to gamble while intoxicated and social gamblers were more likely to choose socially-related gambling. An examination of remaining motives suggests additional categories may be warranted – specifically financial and charitable reasons. These findings offer some support for the model; however, it may need to be expanded to account for other motives. The study highlights the advantages and limitations of using self-generated reasons to study gambling motivation.