Controlling the illusion of control: a grounded theory of sports betting advertising in the UK

Sports betting advertising has arguably permeated contemporary sport consumption in many countries. Advertisements build narratives that represent situations and characters that normalize betting behaviour and raise public concerns regarding their detrimental effect on vulnerable groups. Adopting a grounded theory approach, the present study examined a British sample of sports betting advertisements (N = 102) from 2014 to 2016. The analysis revealed that individual themes aligned in a single core narrative, constructing a dual persuasive strategy of sports betting advertising: (i) to reduce the perceived risk involved in betting (with themes such as betting with friends, free money offers, humour, or the use of celebrities) while (ii) enhancing the perceived control of bettors (including themes of masculinity and sport knowledge). In addition, new technological features of sports betting platforms (e.g. live in-play betting) were used by advertisers to build narratives in which the ability to predict a sports outcome was overlapped by the ability of bettors to use such platforms, equalizing the ease of betting with the ease of winning. Based on the data analysed, it was concluded that the construction of a magnified idea of control in sports betting advertising is a cause for concern that requires close regulatory scrutiny.     

National survey on lifestyles and gambling in Serbia: gambling participation and problem gambling in adult population

The aim was to examine the association of socio-demographic and lifestyle characteristics with gambling severity level. The study was a part of the National Survey on Lifestyles in Serbia: Substance Abuse and Gambling, in 2014. The sample consisted of 5385 individuals. Based on the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI) score participants were divided into non-problem gambling, low-/moderate-risk gambling and problem gambling. Prevalence of problem gambling was 0.5%, which was associated with having poor self-perceived financial status, having moderate or high risk for psychological distress, playing sports betting, casino games and slot machines. Low/moderate gambling was associated with having poor self-perceived financial status, number of drinking days per year, using any illicit drugs in the last 30 days, playing sports betting, slot machines, and online betting. Programmes of early detection of problem gambling should be developed, and regulation of availability of slot machines and sports betting.     

Bet Anywhere,Anytime: An Analysis of Internet Sports Bettors’ Responses to Gambling Promotions During Sports Broadcasts by Problem Gambling Severity

Promotions for online sports betting during televised sports broadcasts are regularly viewed by millions of Australians, raising concerns about their impacts on vulnerable groups including at-risk and problem gamblers. This study examined whether responses to these promotions varied with problem gambling severity amongst 455 Australian Internet sports bettors participating in an online survey. Results indicated that young male Internet sports bettors are especially vulnerable to gambling problems, particularly if they hold positive attitudes to gambling sponsors who embed promotions into sports broadcasts and to the promotional techniques they use and this heightens the risk that alluring messages contribute to excessive gambling. As problem gambling severity increased, so too did recognition that these promotions have impacted negatively on their sports betting behaviour. Because a plethora of sports betting brands and promotions are now heavily integrated into sports coverage, social marketing efforts are needed to offset their persuasive appeal and counter the positive attitudes towards them that appear linked to excessive gambling amongst Internet sports bettors.     

Exploring psychological need satisfaction from gambling participation and the moderating influence of game preferences

ABSTRACT

Psychological needs are satisfied through leisure participation, which in turn influences subjective well-being. The present study explored the psychological needs reported to be satisfied through gambling participation and examined associations between need satisfaction, game preferences and subjective well-being. A heterogeneous, self-selected sample of 1446 participants was recruited, through the Internet gambling provider Kindred Group Plc, for an online questionnaire survey. Five psychological need dimensions of gambling were identified, using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses on calibration and validation samples, respectively: mastery, detachment, self-affirmation, risk and excitement, and affiliation. Challenge and mastery need satisfaction was higher for poker than for sports betting, horse racing, slots or casino table games; both self-affirmation and affiliation were also higher for poker than for sports betting and slots. By comparison, detachment was higher for slots than for sports gambling. While there were no significant variations in stress levels between the different forms of gambling, happiness ratings were lower for slots compared with sports betting and poker. This study provides insight into how distinctive patterns of play may satisfy different psychological needs and provides preliminary insights into how gambling patterns may prove adaptive or maladaptive as leisure choices.     

Adolescents’ perceptions of parental influences on commercial and simulated gambling activities

Parents can have a major influence on young people’s access to and participation in gambling activities. However, with the rise of digital online gambling, there is greater potential for young people to freely explore and engage in gambling activities without parental oversight. This study examined perceived parental influences on adolescents’ gambling activities, including differences in these influences across commercial and simulated types of activities, and the association between parental influences and problem gambling symptoms. A survey of 824 adolescents from 3 secondary schools was conducted. The results indicated that financial gambling was usually facilitated by a parent, particularly for scratch tickets and sports betting. Simulated gambling activities, such as social casino games, tended to be reported as being unsupervised by parents. Young people’s perceptions of parents’ measures to limit, restrict or oversee online and electronic activities were not significantly associated with youth simulated gambling. Their perceptions of parental influences were not significant predictors of problem gambling behaviours. This study underscores the need to examine potential differences in how adolescents develop an understanding of different gambling activities without parental influences, and adds to the continuing debate on the necessity of regulation and other countermeasures to limit young people’s access to simulated gambling activities.     

Demographic,Behavioural and Normative Risk Factors for Gambling Problems Amongst Sports Bettors

Sports betting is growing exponentially, is heavily marketed and successfully targets young adult males. Associated gambling problems are increasing. Therefore, understanding risk factors for problem gambling amongst sports bettors is an increasingly important area of research to inform the appropriate design and targeting of public health and treatment interventions. This study aimed to identify demographic, behavioural and normative risk factors for gambling problems amongst sports bettors. An online survey of 639 Australian sports bettors using online, telephone and retail betting channels was conducted. Results indicated that vulnerable sports bettors for higher risk gambling are those who are young, male, single, educated, and employed full-time or a full-time student. Risk of problem gambling was also found to increase with greater frequency and expenditure on sports betting, greater diversity of gambling involvement, and with more impulsive responses to betting opportunities, including in-play live action betting. Normative influences from media advertising and from significant others were also associated with greater problem gambling risk. The results of this study can inform a suite of intervention, protection and treatment initiatives targeted especially at young male adults and adolescents that can help to limit the harm from this gambling form.     

Responsibility‐Shifting in a Gambling Environment

Using data that was collected by observing and speaking with customers and members of staff in betting shops in Dublin, Ireland, this article provides a consideration of how regular customers of betting shops explain their bet related failures to themselves and to those around them. It is suggested in this article that a process of self‐reparation of self‐esteem occurs in betting shops after customers experience monetary losses and that this process is facilitated by shifting responsibility for the losses incurred to factors external to and beyond the control of customers.     

Fair and easy: the effect of perceived fairness,effort expectancy and user experience on online slot machine gambling intention

The growth of online gambling necessitates that both marketers and regulators have a better understanding of the gambling intention of players. Perceived fairness of customers towards operators has often been raised as a concern in the industry, but it has received limited attention in research on gambling intention. Theories that seek to explain purchase intention are considered and a model is proposed that investigates the role and impact that perceived fairness and system effort expectancy have on online gambling intention together with the moderating influence of user experience. Data from 255 online gambling customers are gathered and analysed using Hayes PROCESS analyses. Results indicate that perceived fairness impacts gambling intention directly, and indirectly strengthening the effect of effort expectancy on gambling intention. However, user experience weakens both these impacts. The research provides support for the inclusion of perceived fairness in theories that consider drivers of online gambling intention. In addition, the important role that perceived fairness plays offers support for gambling regulators who in recent years have sought to promote a fairer and more transparent deal to players. Firms in the online gambling industry can also look positively at activities enhancing fairness as its promotion can also enhance their performance.     

Gambling on sport: Policy issues

The most significant public policy issue associated with sports betting is legalization. Supporters of legalization rest the bulk of their case on the economic benefits the state can experience. They also assert that legalization will have a major negative impact on the extent of illegal gambling. Those who are against further legalization, particularly amateur and professional sports leagues, the horse race industry, and legal bookmakers, point out that sports wagering is not very profitable and is very risky for the operator. Furthermore, legal wagering will be unable to compete effectively with the price of illegal operations. It is highly likely that the recently introduced federal legislation, S.474, Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act, prohibiting further legalization of sports betting will be enacted.     

Assessing the Playing Field: A Prospective Longitudinal Study of Internet Sports Gambling Behavior

Internet gambling is growing rapidly, as is concern about its possible effect on the public’s health. This paper reports the results of the first prospective longitudinal study of actual Internet sports gambling behavior during eight study months. Data include recorded fixed-odds bets on the outcome of sporting contests and live-action bets on the outcome of events within contests for 40,499 Internet sports gambling service subscribers who enrolled during February 2005. We tracked the following primary gambling behaviors: daily totals of the number of bets made, money bet, and money won. We transformed these variables into measures of gambling involvement. We analyzed behavior for both fixed-odds and live-action bets. The median betting behavior of the 39,719 fixed-odds bettors was to place 2.5 bets of €4 (approximately $5.3 US) every fourth day during the median 4 months from first to last bet. This typical pattern incurred a loss of 29% of the amount wagered. The median betting behavior of the 24,794 live-action bettors was to place 2.8 wagers of €4 every fourth day during the median duration of 6 weeks at a loss of 18% of the amount wagered. We also examined the behavior of empirically determined groups of heavily involved bettors whose activity exceeded that of 99% of the sample.     

The Role of Responsible Gambling Strategy and Gambling Passion in the Online Gamblers’ Decision-Making Process: Revising the Theory of Planned Behavior

This study revised the theory of planned behavior (TPB) by incorporating the new concepts of gambling passion and responsible gambling strategy (RGS) to predict gamblers’ intention to gamble in online sports betting. The data were collected at the end of March in 2012 through an online gambling website. The findings indicated that the inclusion of two types of gambling passion and two types of RGS explains online gambling intention well. Specifically, out of the original antecedent predictors of TPB, attitude toward online gambling was positively related to harmonious passion. Subjective norm had a positive relationship with both harmonious and obsessive passion. The results also showed that perceived behavioral control does not have a significant effect on the two gambling passions but has a direct and significant influence on behavioral intention. Additionally, the compulsory RGS had a negative effect on obsessive passion, whereas supplementary RGS had concurrent positive impacts on harmonious and obsessive passion. Lastly, the two gambling passions were notable predictors of behavioral intention toward online sports betting.     

Gambling Participation and Problems Among Employees at a University Health Center

This study evaluated the frequency and intensity of gambling behaviors among employees at an academic health center. Employees were sent an anonymous questionnaire assessing demographic characteristics, participation in gambling activities, and gambling-related problems. Of the 904 respondents, 96% reported gambling in their lifetimes, with 69% gambling in the past year, 40% in the past two months, and 21% in the past week. The most common forms of gambling were lottery and scratch tickets, slot machines, card playing, sports betting, bingo, and track. Only 1.2% of the sample reported gambling on the internet. Using scores on the South Oaks Gambling Screen, 3.0% of the respondents were classified as Level 2 (or problem) gamblers, and an additional 1.8% were Level 3 (or pathological) gamblers. Compared to Level 1 (non-problem) gamblers, Level 2 and Level 3 gamblers were more likely to be male, single, and employed full-time, and to have lower income and education. About half of the Level 2 and Level 3 gamblers reported interest in an evaluation of their gambling behaviors and treatment interventions. These data suggest the need to screen for gambling problems in health care professionals and to provide gambling-specific treatments.     

Games of chance or masters of illusion: multiline slots design may promote cognitive distortions

Problem gamblers often have distorted beliefs about gambling, including illusion of control and gambler's fallacy. Most multiline slots games allow players to adjust the number of wagered paylines and the amount bet per line, and over time this control may support incorrect conclusions and promote distorted gambling beliefs. We created software to run simulations of a popular multiline slots game and examined the effects of betting on single versus multiple paylines. Simultaneous multiline betting tends to produce a less varied gambling experience because it increases the frequency of legitimate wins and ‘losses disguised as wins’, while decreasing the occurrence of ‘big wins’. It also shortens consecutive series of losing spins and it prolongs the time a typical player takes to exhaust funds. Indirect control over losing streaks may give some players the false impression that they can play skilfully and predict the occurrence of wins. However, applying five different wagering strategies in our simulations showed that none had any real effect on the average percentage of wagers that would be ‘paid back’ to players as prizes. Player control over multiline slots games may lead frequent gamblers to incorrect conclusions that sustain excessive play despite recurring losses.     

Association between gambling harms and game types: Finnish population study

Understanding of the harmfulness of game types is needed when planning harm minimization and prevention strategies. Adult data (N = 3555) from the Finnish Gambling 2015 survey was used to investigate the associations between different game types and gambling-related harms. A negative binomial regression model was used to analyse the effects of demographics, gambling involvement factors, and engaging in different game types on the number of gambling-related harms, which were evaluated by PGSI and SOGS. Age of 18–24, gambling several times a week, high relative expenditure, online gambling and engaging weekly either in scratch games, betting games or slot machine gambling were associated with a higher number of gambling harms. Chasing losses was the most typical harm among online poker players and fast-paced daily lottery game players, while poor self-control was the most typical harm with other game types, although some of the results were not statistically significant. Multiple factors were associated with gambling harms, including young age and gambling intensity. Games that provide a possibility for high-frequency gambling are more linked to harms. Recommendations should be implemented to incorporate effective harm-minimizing strategies in the regulation of specific game types both at the legislative level (provision and supply) and at the public health level.     

Betting is Loving and Bettors are Predators: A Conceptual Metaphor Approach to Online Sports Betting Advertising

The legalisation of online gambling in multiple territories has caused a growth in the exposure of consumers to online sports betting (OSB) advertising. While some efforts have been made to understand the visible structure of betting promotional messages, little is known about the latent components of OSB advertisements. The present study sought to address this issue by examining the metaphorical conceptualisation of OSB advertising. A sample of Spanish and British television OSB advertisements from 2014 to 2016 was analysed (N = 133). Following Lakoff and Johnson’s conceptual metaphor theory, four main structural metaphors that shaped how OSB advertising can be understood were identified: betting as (1) an act of love, (2) a market, (3) a sport, and (4) a natural environment. In general, these metaphors, which were found widely across 29 different betting brands, facilitated the perception of bettors as active players, with an executive role in the sport events bet upon, and greater control over bet outcomes.     

Understanding the Relationship Between Sports-Relevant Gambling and Being At-Risk for a Gambling Problem Among American Adolescents

Fantasy sports is a growing industry with a reported 56.8 million individuals participating in the United States and Canada alone in 2015. Whereas this activity has attracted considerable public attention, little research has examined its impact on adolescents in spite of their high rates of gambling. The current study examined the relationship between regular participation (more than once a month) in sport-relevant gambling activities among adolescents and those identified as being at-risk for a gambling problem. Questionnaire responses were collected from high school students (N = 6818; 49 % male) in Wood County, Ohio, United States. Statistical analyses revealed that regular involvement in sports betting, fantasy sports betting, and daily fantasy sports betting among adolescents was associated with a higher risk of gambling problems. Further, although males participate more frequently in these activities, females who participate have a stronger likelihood of being at-risk. Students aged 16–19 years old are at a higher risk for developing a gambling problem compared to younger adolescents when regularly engaging in sports-related gambling. Moreover, regularly participating in daily fantasy sports is the strongest predictor of at-risk gambling behavior in 13–15 year old students. A hierarchical logistic regression supports that controlling for gender and age, all forms of sport-relevant gambling activities are significant predictors of at-risk gambling. This study contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of the impact of sports betting and fantasy sports on adolescents and establishes an initial step for future studies to further investigate these relationships.     

Optimal Betting in Casino Blackjack

Abstract

In casino blackjack, the odds fluctuate from round to round as cards are dealt from a randomly shuffled pack. A player who ‘counts cards’ can estimate the odds on the next round and so can vary his bet size accordingly: better-than-average odds warrant a larger bet. The optimal relationship of bet to count is derived here under the criterion of maximum expected increase in capital per round subject to a specified risk of ruin. The optimisation analysis is complicated by the need to impose lower and possibly upper bounds on the bet size. A family of optimal betting schemes is found, depending on the risk selected and other parameters; among this family is the one found by Harris, Janecek and Yamashita using a different optimisation criterion. Representative computational results are displayed for a typical set of blackjack conditions. Some commentary is given on the choice of a bet scheme from the optimal family, depending on the player’s style and objectives. Remarks are also made about Kelly betting, in the context of risk.     

Adolescent exposure to gambling promotions during televised sport: an exploratory study of links with gambling intentions

Young people are exposed to gambling promotions while watching televised sports; however, little research has examined how this influences gambling attitudes and intentions. This paper developed and tested a research model underpinned by the Theory of Reasoned Action and specifically aimed to examine (1) adolescents' exposure and attitudes to, and recall and perceptions of, gambling promotions during televised sport; (2) associations between adolescents' exposure and attitude to these gambling promotions, and their intention to gamble on sports and other gambling activities once of legal gambling age. An online survey was conducted of 131 Australian adolescents. Greater intention to gamble both on sports and non-sports was associated with higher frequency of watching televised sports, and more positive attitudes to gambling operators, to gambling promotions during televised sport and to promotional techniques used. Regression analysis indicated that the strongest predictors of sports betting intention were male gender and a more positive attitude to gambling sponsors and their promotions during televised sport. Strongest predictors of gambling intention were male gender, subjective norms and a more positive attitude to promotion of gambling during televised sport. Findings can inform advertising restrictions for gambling during general television viewing times, and health promotion messages countering promotion of gambling to adolescents.     

The Role of Perceived Control and Overconfidence in Pathological Gambling

Two studies sought to determine whether perceived control has different effects on confidence assessment and betting decisions among pathological and problem gamblers than among non-problem gamblers. In Study 1, 200 college students who were frequent gamblers (80 female and 120 male, median age 20) completed the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) and then engaged in a task in which they answered questions, assessed confidence in each answer, and considered bets on their answers that were fair if they were well-calibrated, but unfavorable if they were overconfident. Probable pathological and problem gamblers earned significantly fewer points than non-problem gamblers. This was due to greater overconfidence among pathological and problem gamblers, which led to systematically less favorable bets. In Study 2, using 384 participants (105 female and 279 male, median age 20), control was independently manipulated and bets were constructed to make point value independent of overconfidence. Problem and pathological gamblers showed both greater overconfidence and greater bet acceptance. They were less affected by control in their betting decisions than non-problem gamblers, but more affected in the slope of their betting function. It is concluded that pathological and problem gamblers process information about confidence and control differently from non-problem gamblers.     

Analyses of multiple types of online gambling within one provider: an extended evaluation framework of actual online gambling behaviour

The aim of this article is to extend previous publications of actual online gambling behaviour that neglected involvement across multiple types of gambling and did not provide levels of at-risk involvement. Behavioural data from 27,653 subscribers of an online gambling provider (bwin) in February 2005 were reanalysed across eight products over seven months. Established involvement levels of offline gambling segregated possible online at-risk gamblers. Forty-seven percent of the sample exceeded at least one of the two most conservative thresholds. Each additionally used gambling product increased the risk of transgressing involvement cut-offs by 3.06 to 4.27 times, but type-specific risks decreased strongly after adjusting for involvement in multiple gambling types. Only Poker and Live-action betting remained significant risk factors after adjustment. Taken together, cross-product analyses of gambling patterns lay the groundwork for an extended understanding of individual online gambling behaviour and overcome the methodological artefacts of isolated analyses.