Reliability,Validity and Classification Accuracy of the South Oaks Gambling Screen in a Brazilian Sample

The purpose of this study was to examine the reliability, validity and classification accuracy of the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) in a sample of the Brazilian population. Participants in this study were drawn from three sources: 71 men and women from the general population interviewed at a metropolitan train station; 116 men and women encountered at a bingo venue; and 54 men and women undergoing treatment for gambling. The SOGS and a DSM-IV-based instrument were applied by trained researchers. The internal consistency of the SOGS was 0.75 according to the Cronbach’s alpha model, and construct validity was good. A significant difference among groups was demonstrated by ANOVA (F _(2.238) = 221.3, P < 0.001). The SOGS items and DSM-IV symptoms were highly correlated (r = 0.854, P < 0.01). The SOGS also presented satisfactory psychometric properties: sensitivity (100), specificity (74.7), positive predictive rate (60.7), negative predictive rate (100) and misclassification rate (0.18). However, a cut-off score of eight improved classification accuracy and reduced the rate of false positives: sensitivity (95.4), specificity (89.8), positive predictive rate (78.5), negative predictive rate (98) and misclassification rate (0.09). Thus, the SOGS was found to be reliable and valid in the Brazilian population.     

Is the SOGS an Accurate Measure of Pathological Gambling Among Children, Adolescents and Adults?

The South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) is widely used to assess the prevalence of pathological gambling. For a variety of reasons, this instrument may not provide an accurate rate of the prevalence of pathological gambling. In this paper, one source of error in data provided by the SOGS is investigated. It is argued that individuals may not fully understand the meaning of some items, and that clarification of the meaning of misunderstood items may in some cases lead to a changed score on the scale. The present study evaluates respondents' understanding of the SOGS items. The results from three studies are reported, each using a different sample: grade school children, adolescents and adults. It was hypothesised that (1) participants would not understand some items of the SOGS, (2) problem gamblers and probable pathological gamblers would be more inclined to interpret items incorrectly than would non-problem gamblers and, (3) consistent with the first two hypotheses, clarification of items would decrease the number of participants identified as problem gamblers or probable pathological gamblers. The data obtained supported hypotheses 1 and 3. Furthermore, hypothesis 2 was supported for grade school children, but not for adolescents or adults. These results are consistent with recent literature on endorsement and acquiescence phenomena, and have implications for prevalence studies of probable pathological gambling.     

The correction for bias in prevalence estimation with screening tests

The concern that the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) and other screening tests have a relatively high rate of false positive errors which results in overestimation of the true prevalence in general population studies is shown to be unfounded. False positives are seen to be a necessary but not sufficient condition for overestimation. It is demonstrated that the proper research question is whether the sample prevalence estimator is biased, and, if so, in which direction. One solution to the problem of bias is shown to depend on the availability of estimates of the error rates of the test.     

DSM-IV and the South Oaks Gambling Screen: diagnosing and assessing pathological gambling in Turkey

The main purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of the DSM-IV diagnostic criteria and the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) in identifying Turkish pathological gamblers. Fifty-nine subjects participated in the study. The subjects were diagnosed as either pathological gamblers or not (comparison group) through the use of the DSM-IV criteria and were given the Turkish version of the SOGS. Four of the ten DSM-IV criteria were found to be problematic in the diagnosis of Turkish pathological gamblers. The data concerning reliability and validity of the Turkish version of the SOGS suggested that the SOGS can be used as a reliable and valid instrument in identifying Turkish pathological gamblers. Most (16 out of 20) of the items of the SOGS appear to work well in discriminating pathological gamblers from the subjects in the comparison group. In the case of the two DSM-IV criteria and the four SOGS items that failed to discriminate, cultural factors seemed to be responsible for the failure.     

Comparing the Utility of a Modified Diagnostic Interview for Gambling Severity (DIGS) with the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) as a Research Screen in College Students

The South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) is compared in reliability to a modified version of the Diagnostic Interview for Gambling Severity (DIGS-S) for use as a pathological gambling (PG) screen in college students. Seventy-two undergraduates (83.3% male, mean age of 18.8) from the University of Georgia completed the measures, completing a longitudinal design with 3 sessions over a 2-month time period. The DIGS-S and the SOGS demonstrated good internal consistency over the 3 sessions, with Cronbach’s Alphas ranging from 0.73 to 0.89, as well as strong concurrent validity, with correlations of .50 to .80 (Ps < .001) between the 2 measures across the 3 sessions. Both Cronbach’s alpha and test–retest reliability were higher with the DIGS-S than the SOGS. Given this, and given that the DIGS directly measures symptoms of pathological gambling, future research could benefit from the use of the DIGS-S as a PG screening tool in a college-aged sample.     

Reliability,Validity, and Cut Scores of the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) for Chinese

We examined the reliability, validity, and classification accuracy of the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) when adopted for use in Chinese. The DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling served as the standard against which the classification accuracy of the SOGS was tested. A total of 283 Chinese adults in the community and 94 Chinese treatment-seeking gamblers were recruited. The internal reliability of the SOGS was satisfactory for the general sample and acceptable for the gambling sample. The SOGS was correlated with the DSM-IV criteria items as well as psychosocial and gambling-related problems. Relative to the DSM-IV criteria, the SOGS tended to overestimate the number of pathological gamblers in both samples. In general, we were relatively confident that individuals were not pathological gamblers if the SOGS scores were between 0 and 4 and were pathological gamblers if the SOGS were between 11 and 20. There was about 50–50 chance of being pathological gamblers if the SOGS scores were between 8 and 10. However, the probability of individuals being pathological gamblers was about 0.30 if the SOGS scores were between 5 and 7. We proposed a SOGS cut score of 8 to screen for probable pathological gambling in Chinese societies.     

Gambling Screens: Does Shortening the Time Frame Affect their Psychometric Properties?

Gambling screening tools such as the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) and a DSM-IV Screen for Gambling Problems (NODS) developed by the National Opinion Research Council have psychometrically validated lifetime and past-year versions. As research questions often dictate shorter time intervals, researchers have adapted the time frames of these instruments to their specific purposes without examining whether changing the time frame affects the psychometric properties. In this study, 3-month versions of SOGS and NODS were administered to a sample of 80 pathological gamblers (59 men, 21 women, mean age 44) seeking treatment at a state-funded facility. The 3-months versions had good internal consistency, good convergent validity with each other, with gambling behaviors assessed via the timeline followback method, and with measures of impulsivity. The 3-month versions also showed good discriminant validity with demographic variables and a measure of verbal IQ. Together the data indicate that shortening the time frame to 3 months does not seem to have adverse effects on the psychometric properties of SOGS and NODS. Thus these adapted versions could profitably be used for shorter time intervals, including as pre/post-treatment and follow-up measures in treatment outcome studies.     

The Canadian Problem Gambling Index: An Evaluation of the Scale and Its Accompanying Profiler Software in a Clinical Setting

Across two studies we assessed the clinical utility of the Canadian Problem Gambling Index (CPGI). In Study 1, the scored items on the CPGI significantly correlated with those of the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS), yet their shared variance was low. Importantly, clinician evaluation of the client’s level of pathology was more strongly associated with that revealed by the CPGI than the SOGS. In terms of utility, clinicians found the non-scored items on the CPGI more useful in treatment than those included with the SOGS. In Study 2, the effectiveness of the CPGI profiler (CPGI-P) software, which graphically depicts problematic gambling-relevant attitudes and behaviours, was assessed. Although clients had difficulties using the CPGI-P interface, they overwhelmingly indicated that the output prompted action to address their gambling. The clinicians were less enthusiastic as they felt the output did not help clients truly understand their gambling problems. Such sentiments were reiterated by the clinicians at a 6 months follow-up. The use of the SOGS and possible adoption of the CPGI (as well as the CPGI-P) in a clinical setting are discussed.     

Clinical obstacles in administrating the South Oaks Gambling Screen in a methadone and alcohol clinic

The South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) was administered to veterans in both an outpatient methadone and problem drinking clinic. The instrument was given to 93 veterans who represented the poor and homeless. It was anticipated that the SOGS would provide important diagnostic information to the clinicians counseling the substance abusing population since many compulsive gamblers have a history of substance abuse. A number of clinical obstacles were encountered in administrating the SOGS in this environment. Both Client and staff noncompliance during the screening were major concerns in this respect. The clinical obstacles encountered in this study were examined and suggestions to prevent these problems are discussed.I would like to thank Howard Shaffer, Ph.D. and the referees for the advice on earlier drafts of this paper.     

SOGS and DSM-IV in the British Gambling Prevalence Survey: Reliability and Factor Structure

This article examines the psychometric performance and reliability of two problem gambling scales (the South Oaks Gambling Screen [SOGS], and a scale based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (4th edn) [DSM-IV]) and their constituent items, based upon data from the first British Gambling Prevalence Survey (Sproston et al ., 2000). Separate factor analyses of SOGS items and DSM-IV items suggested the existence of two independent factors in each case: dependence and gambling-related problems. Scores based upon SOGS and DSM factors correlated only moderately. It is concluded that no single existing screening questionnaire adequately reflects the multi-dimensional nature of problem gambling.     

Alcohol’s Effects on Video Lottery Terminal (VLT) Play Among Probable Pathological and Non-Pathological Gamblers

This study tested whether alcohol increases behaviors associated with video lottery terminal (VLT) play, particularly among probable pathological gamblers. Forty-four regular VLT players were designated either probable pathological gamblers or non-pathological gamblers on the basis of scores on the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS); [Lesieur & Blume (1997). American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1184–1188] Gamblers from each SOGS category were randomly assigned to either a moderately intoxicating alcohol dose or a control beverage condition (n = 11 per cell in the 2 × 2 between-subjects design). Following beverage consumption and absorption, participants played a video poker VLT game for up to 30 minutes. Four behaviors were measured: “power-bets” (doubling bet after viewing only two cards of the five-card poker hand); total money spent; mean bet magnitude; and number of minutes played. Alcohol increased time spent playing and rate of power-bets, particular among the probable pathological gamblers. Post hoc analyses revealed that alcohol also influenced the proportion of losing hands played––increasing them among the probable pathological gamblers while decreasing them among the non-pathological gamblers. Clinical and policy implications of the findings are discussed.     

Problem gambling in a federal prison population: results from the South Oaks Gambling Screen

Three hundred and sixty three medium security federal prison inmates were interviewed with the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) with 5.2% of the sample achieving SOGS scores greater than 4 and another 7.4% attaining scores of 3 or 4, traditional markers of pathological gambling and problem gambling, respectively. Attempts were made to evaluate the relative accuracy of the continuum and dichotomy models of problem gambling by contrasting three groups of subjects (SOGS < 3, SOGS = 3 or 4, SOGS > 4) on a series of gambling-related measures and comparing the relative ability of the SOGS and a dichotomized version of the SOGS to account for residual variance in these same gambling-related measures. Results were consistent with the view that problem gambling embodies features of both a continuum and dichotomy. Nearly half the subjects had desisted from problem gambling on their own, although self-remitters displayed less severe and extensive patterns of problem gambling than non-remitting subjects.     

Revising the South Oaks Gambling Screen in different settings

The South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS), a validated, reliable instrument for detecting gambling problems, and the South Oaks Leisure Activities Screen (SOLAS), a companion screening tool for use with significant others, have been employed in a variety of settings and in several languages. This paper focuses on adapting the SOGS for use in various cultures and localities, discusses the authors' 1992 revision of the SOGS, and includes both the revised SOGS and the SOLAS.     

Potential and probable pathological gamblers: Where do the differences lie?

A large proportion of adolescents engage in gambling activities and the prevalence of pathological gambling is high. This study presents a factor analysis of responses from 122 college students who obtained a score of 3 or greater on the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS), the most widely used instrument to identify probable and potential pathological gamblers. The analysis showed five dimensions: Illegal Behaviors, Heavy Gambling, Eating Disorders, Parentally Modelled/Less Impulsive, and Worry. Analyses revealed that except for the Eating Disorders factor, all factors clearly differentiated the probable from potential pathological gamblers, as identified by the SOGS. Results raise important questions about the relationship of pathological gambling to other psychopathological or antisocial behaviors. Thus the probable pathological gambler category represents a wide-ranging behavioral profile that goes beyond gambling per se. Avenues for future research as well as clinical implications are discussed.This research was partially supported by grants from Le Fonds Richelieu, le Conseil Québécois de la Recherche Sociale and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.     

The Impact of Social Desirability Biases on Self-Report Among College Student and Problem Gamblers

The impacts of two types of social desirability bias, self-deceptive enhancement (SDE) and impression management (IM), were examined on self-reports of gambling problems, measured by the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS), and recent gambling behavior, as measured by the Timeline Followback (TLFB) method, in a sample of college students (N = 191), and a sample of treatment-seeking problem gamblers (N = 49). Consistent with our expectations, IM was negatively associated with SOGS scores in both samples. IM was most highly correlated with SOGS scores among treatment-seeking participants (r = −.44, p < .01). Substantial numbers of participants in both samples had high enough IM scores as to call into question the validity of their self-report gambling data, according to published interpretive guidelines. With respect to SDE, we had predicted that it would be positively related to gambling behaviors and gambling-related problems, but found that SDE was inversely related to SOGS scores in both samples. Very little evidence was found for social desirability effects on TLFB scores. Thus, preliminary evidence was obtained that self-report data on gambling problems, but not on gambling behavior (frequency of gambling and amount of time and money spent), may be susceptible to the effects of impression management in both college students and treatment-seeking gamblers.     

Screening for college problem gambling in Chinese societies: psychometric properties of the Chinese version of the South Oaks Gambling Screen (C-SOGS)

A total of 979 Chinese college students were recruited in order to examine the psychometric properties of the Chinese version of the South Oaks Gambling Screen (C-SOGS). The C-SOGS was internally consistent and correlated with gambling-related problems and negative mental health status. Results of likelihood ratios (LRs) and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve supported the C-SOGS as a valid screening instrument for probable pathological gambling. Using the DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling, the conventional cut score of 5 on the C-SOGS showed satisfactory sensitivity, specificity and false negative rates. This cut score identified 85% of the true positives and 95% of the true negatives. In general, the C-SOGS overestimated the number of pathological gamblers relative to DSM-IV criteria. Future research on Chinese gambling should build on current empirical work on the SOGS to refine the C-SOGS for use with Chinese populations.     

Narcissistic Implications in Gambling Disorder: The Mediating Role of Emotion Dysregulation

Gambling Disorder (GD) is a complex psychopathology involving a numbers of cognitive, behavioral, emotional and neurobiological determinants. Previous research suggests that GD may frequently co-occur with Narcissistic Personality Disorder. However, there is still a lack of study investigating Pathological Narcissism (PN) in both its vulnerable and grandiose facets among clinical population. Moreover, emotional dysregulation is commonly thought to underlie GD albeit research on this topic remains poor. The present study aims to investigate the role of both vulnerable and grandiose narcissism in relation to GD as well as the mediator role played by emotion dysregulation in such link. We administered to a sample of addicted gamblers (n = 74) and a sample of heathy controls (n = 105), the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS), the Pathological Narcissism Inventory (PNI) and the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS). Differences across groups emerged on the scores obtained on the PNI and DERS. Moreover, we found positive associations between SOGS scores and both PNI and DERS. Also, strategic addicted gamblers showed higher levels of vulnerable narcissism compared to others. Finally, emotion dysregulation difficulties appeared to fully mediate the relationship between grandiose narcissism and GD severity. Grandiose and vulnerable narcissism appear important variables involved in GD. Also, emotion regulation deficits seem to account for GD and to explain the pathways by which grandiose narcissism leads to GD. Clinical implications and future directions are discussed.     

Psychometric Validation of the Gambling Passion Scale (GPS) in an English-speaking University Sample

The Gambling Passion Scale (GPS) is a recently developed research instrument for assessing individuals' passion for gambling. Because the psychometric properties of the GPS have only previously been examined in French Canadians, the aim of this study was to replicate previous psychometric findings in an English-speaking university sample. Participants (female: n = 58; male: n = 89) were drawn from a university campus based on self-reported experience with gambling indexed by scores on the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS). The two-factor structure reported by Rousseau et al. (Journal of Gambling Studies, 18(1), pp. 45–66, 2002) was largely replicated in this sample, as were relationships between ‘obsessive passion’ and negative consequences stemming from gambling. These results support the validity of the GPS as a measure of gambling passion in English-speaking university gamblers and its potential to contribute to understanding problem gambling.     

Evaluating the Problem Gambling Severity Index

A large, integrated survey data set provided by the Ontario Problem Gambling Centre was used to investigate psychometric properties of the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI). This nine-item self-report instrument was designed to measure a single, problem gambling construct. Unlike its nearest competitor—the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS)—the PGSI was designed specifically for use with a general population rather than in a clinical context. The present analyses demonstrated that the PGSI does assess a single, underlying, factor, but that this is complicated by different, multiple factor structures for respondents with differing levels of problem gambling severity. The PGSI also demonstrated small to moderate correlations with measures of gambling frequency and faulty cognitions. Overall, the PGSI presents a viable alternative to the SOGS for assessing degrees of problem gambling severity in a non-clinical context.

Psychometric Evaluation of the Problem Gambling Severity Index-Chinese Version (PGSI-C)

The purpose of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the Chinese 9-item Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI) derived from the 31-item Canadian Problem Gambling Index (CPGI) originally developed by Ferris and Wynne (2001). Exploratory factor analysis (EFA; n = 386; Group A data) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA; n = 387; Group B data) on the Chinese student and community data (Mean age = 25.36 years) showed that a unifactorial model fitted the data with good reliability score (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.77). The concurrent validity of the PGSI-C was good in terms of the Chinese data matching the expected correlation between PGSI-C and other variables or scales such as SOGS, gambling frequency, gambling urge, gambling cognitions, depression, anxiety, and stress. The scale also reported good discriminant and predictive validity. In sum, the PGSI-C has good psychometric properties and can be used among Chinese communities to identify at-risk problem gamblers. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.