Sexual behavior of cohabitors: A comparison of three independent samples

I tested the hypothesis that cohabitors, as a component of their lifestyle choice to live together without being married, would be more sexually experienced and sexually active than noncohabitors. Differences between cohabitors and noncohabitors were examined in three independent samples (Ns = 173, 136, and 148). Within each group, differences between cohabitors and noncohabitors were examined in regard to background variables, perceived parent sexual attitudes, sexual behavior, sexual history, sexual satisfaction, orgasmic responsiveness, conception history, social competence, and relationship attachment. In general, the hypothesis was confirmed that cohabitors have greater and earlier sexual experience than noncohabitors. Other findings indicated that cohabitors were more socially competent and had parents with more negative sexual attitudes than noncohabitors. No differences in relationship attachment (love and liking for their partner) were found.     

Cohabitation before marriage

This study compares 159 married couples who had or had not lived together previous to marriage with respect to a number of demographic and personality variables. There were few differences between the two groups on background variables but many on personality traits. Males who had cohabited perceived themselves as more androgynous, attractive, and less religious than males who did not cohabit. Females who cohabited saw themselves as more interested in art, attractive, extroverted, intelligent, liberal, androgynous, and having more leadership qualities; while being less religious, clothes-conscious, and law-abiding than women who did not cohabit. Couples who cohabited showed significantly greater sexual experimentation and self-perception accuracy than the couples who did not cohabit. Cohabitors revealed some background and trait within-group differences as a function of the length of their cohabital experiences. The majority of differences between the groups were in terms of variables assessed on the females. Theoretical implications of these findings are discussed. Authors' Note: This investigation was supported in part by a Research Scientist Development Award (K02-DA00017) and a research grant (DA01070) from the U.S. Public Health Service. The assistance of Deborah Cabin is gratefully acknowledged.     

The Relationship Between Cohabitation and Marital Quality and Stability: Change Across Cohorts?

The relationship between premarital cohabitation and marital dysfunction was examined with a total sample of 1,425 spouses in two U.S. marriage cohorts: those married between 1964 and 1980 (when cohabitation was less common) and those married between 1981 and 1997 (when cohabitation was more common). Spouses in both cohorts who cohabited prior to marriage reported poorer marital quality and greater marital instability. When selection factors for cohabitation and subsequent marital instability were included in the statistical model, cohabitors in both cohorts continued to exhibit poorer marital quality and greater marital instability. These findings lend stronger support to an experience of cohabitation perspective than to a selection perspective as an explanation for why couples who cohabit before marriage tend to have more troubled relationships.     

Attitudes About Remarriage in Malta

This study investigated the attitudes about remarriage of married and previously married Maltese people. Respondents were selected using stratified random sampling; 810 men and 1,196 women answered a questionnaire by means of computer-assisted telephone interviewing. The majority (67.4%) of respondents did not consider remarriage. Remarriage was more likely to be considered by respondents who were younger, previously married, nonparents, had children who were not all born within marriage, and were of higher socioeconomic status. The study highlights the differences in attitude according to gender and marital status. The fact that pro-remarriage attitudes were endorsed by 32.6% of respondents and that these were more likely to come from nontraditional family forms suggests that family life in Malta is no longer dictated by normative social imperatives. The need for the legal protection of families headed by cohabiting partners is highlighted.     

Longitudinal Patterns of Women's Marital Quality: The Case of Divorce,Cohabitation, and Race-Ethnicity

Previous work on marital quality has compared average levels of marital quality by demographic characteristics, such as cohabitation, divorce, or race-ethnicity. Less work has examined whether such differences persist over time. To begin to answer this question, this article uses multigroup latent growth curves to examine changes in marital quality over time, in addition to measuring differences in levels of reported marital quality among cohabitors versus noncohabitors, divorced versus stably married women, and members of different racial-ethnic groups. Although many differences are small and statistically insignificant, the results show that non-normative and traditionally disadvantaged groups experience not only lower levels of marital quality but that these differences also persist throughout the life course. This article also shows that using marital instead of relationship duration for cohabitors has substantive implications when interpreting the results.     

An Exploratory Investigation of Heterosexual Licensed Domestic Partners

In‐depth telephone interviews were conducted in four cities in an exploratory study of 23 licensed cohabitors to determine why they have chosen to legitimize their intimate unions through domestic partnership ordinances, rather than through legal marriage. The cohabitors in this sample are pursuing these licensed partnerships to obtain an economic benefit (e.g., health insurance coverage for a partner); as a substitute for legal remarriage; to legitimize their unions in a way other than through legal marriage; or as an ideological alternative to legal marriage. Regardless of motivations to pursue domestic partnership certificates, these respondents are divided over whether they should have the same rights and responsibilities as the married.     

Attitudes Toward Inheritance Following Divorce and Remarriage

The purpose of this study is to examine attitudes regarding who should be included in wills following divorce and remarriage. Respondents were 268 men and 439 women. In mailed vignettes, they indicated whom they thought should be included in an elder's will. Three variables were examined: (a) family closeness, (b) contact after divorce, and (c) remarriage. Three factors were associated with inheritance obligations: (a) genetic ties, (b) patriarchal lineage, and (c) family ties, which were defined more broadly than genetic relationships. Few respondents mentioned factors such as family closeness and reciprocity. There was little agreement regarding who is and who is not in the family, but inheritance clearly was limited to family. Obligation to include the next of kin in the will supersedes obligations based upon closeness and frequency of contact.     

Remarried Men and Remarried Women

The study of remarriage after divorce has by and large been ignored by family sociologists. Previous studies on remarriage focused primarily on the individual's adjustment to or the aftermath of remarriage. Employing 1972-82 General Social Survey data, 1 use regression techniques to investigate the relationship between socioeconomic variables and the state of remarriage, for divorced men and women. I test the hypotheses that for men, education, occupation and income level are positively related to remarriage, while for women these variables are inversely associated with remarriage. As hypothesized, highly educated divorced women are less likely to be remarried, as are divorced women who are occupationally and financially independent. The important factor for divorced women considering remarriage is whether or not they are working. Divorced men, on the other hand, are likely to be remarried when they are older and have higher incomes. Unexpectedly, education is inversely related to remarriage for divorced men.     

Perceptions of Financial Well-Being among American Women in Diverse Families

This study investigated the financial well-being of American women using data from a nationwide web survey of 368 women between the ages of 30 and 65 with household incomes of at least $40,000. Specifically, we examined perceptions of financial well-being among women with and without children who lived in different family forms including marriage, cohabitation, stepfamilies, as well as women who were single. The majority of women reported they had conservative buying behaviors, desired financial independence, had a somewhat negative view of their current financial situation, had worries about retirement and their financial futures, and considered long-term care insurance a necessity. Women in nontraditional families (single mothers, cohabitors, and stepfamilies) had significantly greater worries about their financial futures than women in first marriages. Single mothers were less likely to say that they had their financial house in order and were more likely to express concern that their money would not last through retirement. Cohabiting women were significantly more likely to express fears about becoming a burden. All three groups were more likely than women in first marriages to agree that long-term care insurance is a necessity. Women who were older, were more educated, had higher income, and who contributed more money to the household income had more positive perceptions of their financial situation.     

Change in the Association Between Premarital Cohabitation and Separation,Australia 1945 – 2000

We investigate change in the association between premarital cohabitation and the risk of separation. Using retrospective marriage history data from the first wave (2001) of the Household Income and Labor Dynamics in Australian survey, we examine 6,210 first marriages formed between 1945 and 2000. We find the association between premarital cohabitation and separation is changing. The increased risk of separation for cohabitors compared to noncohabitors diminishes each year for marriages before 1988. This association then reverses for marriages after 1988, where noncohabitors have an increased risk of separation. Our results indicate that, for more recent marriages, premarital cohabitation reduces the risk of separation; more research is needed to understand the underlying mechanisms for this reversal.     

Remarriage Between Divorced People with Children from Previous Marriages: A Proposal for Preparation for Remarriage*

This paper discusses the special attributes of the legally reconstituted families formed when divorced persons who have children from their previous marriages remarry. The remarriage family is identified as a high risk group for which society has not as yet established norms. Interviews with 70 couples suggest that the stress for couples and families involved in divorce and remarriage would be prevented or reduced through remarriage preparation courses.     

A comparison of cohabiting relationships among older and younger adults

This study explores how cohabitation differs for older and younger adults, drawing on data from 966 cohabitors in each of the first 2 waves of the National Survey of Families and Households. Older cohabitors report significantly higher levels of relationship quality and stability than younger cohabitors, although they are less likely to have plans to marry their partners. Few differences were found in the reasons to cohabit, although assessing compatibility is a more important reason for younger cohabitors. Findings suggest that older cohabitors are more likely to view their relationship as an alternative to marriage, whereas younger cohabitors are more likely to view their relationship as a prelude to it.     

Age at Coresidence,Premarital Cohabitation,and Marriage Dissolution: 1985–2009

Does the age at which premarital cohabitors moved in together explain why they have been found to have an increased risk of marital dissolution? Explanations for the increased risk of marriage dissolution among those who marry young center on marital role preparation; for premarital cohabitors, many, if not most, of these roles began at the onset of cohabitation, not marriage. Analyses of the 1995, 2002, and 2006–2010 waves of the National Survey of Family Growth (N = 7,037) revealed that age at coresidence explained a substantial portion of the higher marital dissolution risk of premarital cohabitors. In comparisons standardized by age at coresidence, the difference in risk of marital dissolution between premarital cohabitors and those who married without prior cohabitation (“direct marriers”) was much smaller than in comparisons standardized by age at marriage, and in some models this difference was not significant. Selection into direct marriage and premarital cohabitation was also examined.     

Redivorce Following Remarriage

This paper examines the use of the often quoted remarriage studies done in the 50s by Monahan. It was found that extreme caution should be used in presentations where the redivorce rate is discussed. The current statistics certainly do not paint the bleak picture presented by Monahan. Surprisingly, when 28 current family texts were sampled for their treatment of remarriage, it was found that most do not even address the topic, and of those who do, most present the older and misleading Monahan data. It is suggested in the paper that researchers, educators, and counselors need an accurate view of the risk of remarriage following divorce, since most of those who divorce do remarry. Also, the suggestion was made that the traditional family form may not be in as much of a decline as some report. Most people stay married; of those who divorce, most (68%) have either one child or none, and most remarry.     

Serial Cohabitation and the Marital Life Course

Using cohort data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, this paper tracks the experiences of serial cohabitors. Results indicate that only a minority of cohabiting women (about 15% – 20%) were involved in multiple cohabitations. Serial cohabitations were overrepresented among economically disadvantaged groups, especially those with low income and education. They also were less likely than single‐instance cohabiting unions to end in marriage rather than dissolve. If serial cohabitors married, divorce rates were very high — more than twice as high as for women who cohabited only with their eventual husbands. The results suggest the need to balance the government’s current preoccupation with marriage promotion with greater support of “at risk” unions that marriage promotion initiatives have helped create.     

Older widows'' attitudes towards men and remarriage

Sixty-four older women who had been widowed for several years were interviewed about their attitudes towards men and remarriage. Qualitative and quantitative data are presented. A majority said they are interested in or attracted to men, but a large majority said they are opposed to remarriage or consider it impossible. Number of prior marriages, length and quality of prior marriage, driving, working, persisting grief, other social relationships, prior caregiving, finances, age, and health were investigated as possible determinants of these attitudes. The findings draw attention to factors that vary historically by cohort, in addition to those that are age- and health-related, and support the life-span approach to human development. The attitudes of older widows towards men, courtship, sexuality, and cross-sex relationships are relatively unexplored topics in social gerontology; this investigation contributes significantly to our understanding of older women.     

Historical Trends in the Marital Intentions of One‐Time and Serial Cohabitors

This study explored whether cohabitors' marital intentions have changed over time and whether they are sensitive to a person's cohabitation history, that is, the number of cohabitations individuals have experienced. Using a sample of ever‐cohabited women, 16–28 years old, from the 2002 and 2006–2010 National Survey of Family Growth (N = 6,023), the author found that the prevalence of serial cohabitation continues to increase among younger birth cohorts. Furthermore, the share of female cohabitors with plans to marry has been declining across time, net of demographic controls and cohabitation history. Serial cohabitation has strong negative associations with marital intentions, a pattern that was not present among the oldest birth cohort but has emerged among more recent cohorts. These findings extend prior work by showing that the downward trend in cohabitors' marital intentions is continuing among the youngest cohort of women and, importantly, is not explained by serial cohabitation.     

Divorce Chinese Style

This study investigated divorce during China's social and economic transformation period from 1970 to 2012. Specifically, the study examined the trend development of divorce and demonstrated how marriage formation type and individual socioeconomic characteristics were associated with the likelihood of divorce across time. Event‐history analysis was applied to longitudinal data from the China Family Panel Studies (2010–2012 waves). The results showed a threefold increase in divorce from the pre‐1990s to the 1990s. Surprisingly, the trend shifted to a plateau toward the 2000s. When cohabitation was in its rapidly diffusing stage in the 1990s, individuals who cohabited prior to marriage had a substantially higher likelihood of divorce. As cohabitation became increasingly common in the 2000s, its effect on divorce weakened. The role of socioeconomic characteristics in divorce also varied across time. This study enriches the knowledge of family dynamics in contemporary Chinese society.     

The effects of maternal working conditions and mastery on child behavior problems: studying the intergenerational transmission of social control.

We assess the impact of maternal sense of mastery and maternal working conditions on maternal perceptions of children's behavior problems as a means to study the transmission of social control across generations. We use a sample of 521 employed mothers and their four-to six-year-old children from the National Longitudinal Survey's Youth Cohort in 1986. Regarding working conditions, we consider mother's hourly wage, work hours, and job content including involvement with things (vs. people), the requisite level of physical activity, and occupational complexity. We also consider maternal and child background and current family characteristics, including marital status, family size, and home environment. Maternal mastery was related to fewer reported behavior problems among children. Lower involvement with people and higher involvement with things, as well as low physical activity, were related significantly to higher levels of perceived problems. In addition, recent changes in maternal marital status, including maternal marriage or remarriage, increased reports of problems; stronger home environments had the opposite effect. We interpret these findings as suggesting how maternal experiences of control in the workplace and personal resources of control can influence the internalization of control in children.