Characterization of the municipal solid waste stream in Kabul,Afghanistan

The goal of this study was to assess the existing solid waste management stream in Kabul, Afghanistan, as a basis for developing a sustainable solid waste management system. Achieving the goal of this study necessitated (1) assessment of the major factors affecting the solid waste stream and it collection; (2) estimation of the solid waste generation rate; and (3) characterization of the solid waste composition. The solid waste characterization data demonstrated that the solid waste stream in the city of Kabul, although similar to low income countries in Asia, especially to South Asian countries, is unique in composition and solid waste generation rate. The solid waste stream was characterized with large organic fraction of approximately 70% and specific weight of 413 ± 52 kg/m³. The estimated solid waste generation rate ranged between 0.31 and 0.43 kg/capita/day. It is expected, however, that the solid waste stream characteristics for the city of Kabul will change over time to be similar to waste streams of cities in the region with similar socio-economic, cultural and religious background.     

Ibn Khaldun and Philosophy: Causality in History

Ibn Khaldun was a statesman, diplomat, scholar and judge. His masterpiece Muqaddimah bears testimony to his skills in some other fields like economy and poetry too. As an intellectual of his time, he was naturally interested in philosophy as well. He had an education in philosophy and had a considerable knowledge in both Greek and Islamic philosophy. In fact, he is considered a philosopher of history and even the first one. This article will display an aspect of Ibn Khaldun's interest and relation to philosophy. It will discuss his conception of causation and analyze how it works in his history.     

A simple approach to analyzing clustered longitudinal data

When modeling correlated binary data in the presence of informative cluster sizes, generalized estimating equations with either resampling or inverse-weighting, are often used to correct for estimation bias. However, existing methods for the clustered longitudinal setting assume constant cluster sizes over time. We present a subject-weighted generalized estimating equations scheme that provides valid parameter estimation for the clustered longitudinal setting while allowing cluster sizes to change over time. We compare, via simulation, the performance of existing methods to our subject-weighted approach. The subject-weighted approach was the only method that showed negligible bias, with excellent coverage, for all model parameters.     

On estimation of population mean based on two measurements

There are many estimators for population mean: arithmetic mean, median, root mean square, geometric mean, harmonic mean, and so forth. Which one is the best? Here, we answer this question given two measurements from a uniform distribution.     

Microfinance as a Development and Poverty Alleviation Tool in Rural Bangladesh: A Critical Assessment

Poverty is multidimensional in nature and exists in every part of the world. Microfinance is considered one of the most important programs to achieve poverty reduction, particularly in Bangladesh. It has been estimated that nearly 45% of Bangladesh's population lives below the poverty line. This qualitative research study was conducted in order to determine the effectiveness of microfinance programs and the contributing factors to the high‐level of poverty among microfinance beneficiaries in the district of Bogra, Bangladesh. Study findings indicated that microfinance programs were ineffective as a result of high interest rates; insufficient loans; unproductive use of loans; corruption and poor skills of microfinance institution staff; weekly repayment schedules; and physical and mental harassment of poor women. Additionally, the lack of employment opportunities, education, healthcare facilities and social safety nets; natural disasters; the dowry system; and the rising cost of basic daily needs have also contributed to chronic poverty.     

The impact of female education on fertility: a natural experiment from Egypt

This paper presents new evidence on the impact of female education on fertility in Egypt using the change in the length of primary schooling as the source of exogenous variation in education. Beginning in 1988, the Egyptian government cut the number of primary school years from six to five, moving from a 12-year system of pre-university education to an 11-year system. This policy change affected all individuals born on or after October 1977. Using triennial pooled cross-section data from 1992 to 2014 and a nonparametric regression discontinuity approach, we compare education and fertility of women born just before and right after October 1977. Our analysis shows that female education significantly reduces the number of children born per woman. The reduction in fertility seems to result from delaying maternal age rather than changing women’s fertility preferences. We also provide evidence that female education in Egypt does not boost women’s labor force participation or affect their usages of contraceptive methods. Female education, however, does appear to increase women’s age at marriage which might explain the delay of maternal age.     

How to Reduce the Impact of Equivalence Scales on Poverty Measurement: Evidence from Turkey

The main aim of the paper is to contribute to the poverty measurement literature by demonstrating a method to reduce the impact of equivalence scales in poverty measurement. This is accomplished by choosing the most appropriate reference household type. The results showed that one adult household is certainly not suitable for being the reference household type. When one adult household is set as the reference, in the range of no equivalence scale and per capita equivalence scale, poverty head count ratio changes from 1 to 48 %, showing the huge effect of the equivalence scale choice. Also the analyses at household size level showed that one adult household type is not convenient to be the reference household type. On the other hand, no clear distinction could be made between central household types, but the importance of choosing a household type close to the center was demonstrated for Turkish data.     

DISTRIBUTION OF THE LEAST SQUARES ESTIMATOR IN A FIRST-ORDER AUTOREGRESSIVE MODEL

This paper investigates the finite sample distribution of the least squares estimator of the autoregressive parameter in a first-order autoregressive model. A uniform asymptotic expansion for the distribution applicable to both stationary and nonstationary cases is obtained. Accuracy of the approximation to the distribution by a first few terms of this expansion is then investigated. It is found that the leading term of this expansion approximates well the distribution. The approximation is, in almost all cases, accurate to the second decimal place throughout the distribution. In the literature, there exist a number of approximations to this distribution which are specifically designed to apply in some special cases of this model. The present approximation compares favorably with those approximations and in fact, its accuracy is, with almost no exception, as good as or better than these other approximations. Convenience of numerical computations seems also to favor the present approximations over the others. An application of the finding is illustrated with examples.     

Disadvantage and Discrimination Compounded: the experience of Pakistani and Bangladeshi parents of disabled children in the UK

This paper discusses a qualitative and quantitative study of the circumstances of 20 Pakistani and Bangladeshi families with one or more severely disabled children living in Birmingham, England. Parents and other adult carers were interviewed using a combination of structured questionnaires and a semi-structured interview schedule focusing on the families' material circumstances, their use of formal services, informal care arrangements, and aspects of the parents' social and psychological well-being. The study suggests that previous national surveys of disabled families may have under-estimated the extent of material disadvantage, while it confirms that health and social care professionals should not assume that Pakistani and Bangladeshi parents have recourse to high levels of extended family support. The combination of disadvantaged circumstances and difficulties in securing access to appropriate services, which are found for the majority of families with a disabled child, was particularly acute for these ethnic minority families, suggesting the additional dimension of institutional racism.