Weighted averaging,Jeffrey conditioning and invariance

Jeffrey conditioning tells an agent how to update her priors so as to grant a given probability to a particular event. Weighted averaging tells an agent how to update her priors on the basis of testimonial evidence, by changing to a weighted arithmetic mean of her priors and another agent’s priors. We show that, in their respective settings, these two seemingly so different updating rules are axiomatized by essentially the same invariance condition. As a by-product, this sheds new light on the question how weighted averaging should be extended to deal with cases when the other agent reveals only parts of her probability distribution. The combination of weighted averaging (for the events whose probability the other agent reveals) and Jeffrey conditioning (for the events whose probability the other agent does not reveal) is a comprehensive updating rule to deal with such cases, which is again axiomatized by invariance under embedding. We conclude that, even though one may dislike Jeffrey conditioning or weighted averaging, the two make a natural pair when a policy for partial testimonial evidence is needed.     

The Effects of a Goal Setting Intervention on Productivity and Persistence in an Analogue Work Task

The authors of this study sought to quantify the beneficial effect of goal setting on work performance, and to characterize the persistence or deterioration of goal-directed behavior over time. Twenty-six participants completed a computer-based data entry task. Performance was measured during an initial baseline, a goal setting intervention that consisted of either a high, unattainable goal (high goal condition) or a low, attainable goal (low goal condition), followed by a return to baseline, and a second goal setting intervention (the alternate goal to the first goal). In the fifth condition, each participant was given the choice to work in either the high or low goal condition. Greater performance increases were reliably observed during the high goal condition than during the low goal condition, but patterns of persistence or deterioration varied across participants. The implications of the findings for the development and understanding of goal setting interventions in the workplace are explored.     

Discussion: Problems in social indicator development

This paper attempts to draw together the critical comments of five reviewers of U.S. government publications in the field of social indicators. Three of these reviews, by Robert McGinnis, Robert E. Herriott and Monroe Lerner, are included in this issue. David seidman's review has been published in the January 1978 issue of The Annals, while Pamela Ebert-Flatteau's general comments have not been published. The diverse comments of these reviewers are organized into four general problem-areas: conceptual problems, problems of measurement, communication problems, and normative problems.     

Sex differentials in premature death among professionals Part I

This is Part I of a two-part article. A reversal of the sex differential in mortality appears in the 1968–72 death rates of white Wisconsin professionals. Six types of possible measurement error do not account for this finding. Substantially more professional women were not married, and this differential in the distribution of marital status accounted for 37.8 per cent of the women’s deaths. The results linking marital status and mortality are discussed in terms of Durkheim’s concepts of social integration andanomie, and are related to recent empirical studies connecting marriage and parenthood with health and mortality. Part II will further analyse the data in terms of cause of death and occupational variables.     

Modeling initiation into drug injection among street youth

This study aimed at examining the predictors of initiation into drug injection among street youth using social cognitive theory framework. A prospective cohort study based on semi-annual interviews was carried out. Psychosocial determinants referred to avoidance of initiation. Other potential predictors were: sociodemographic characteristics, relationships with injectors, parent's substance misuse, drug use patterns, homelessness, survival sex, sexual abuse. Independent predictors were identified using Cox proportional hazards regression models. Among the 352 participants, high control beliefs about avoidance of initiation was protective while younger age, daily alcohol consumption, heroin use, cocaine use, and survival sex all increased risk of initiation. Preventive strategies targeting street youth should both enhance youth's control beliefs and actual control over their substance use and improve their life conditions.     

Rule-Governed Behavior: Teaching a Preliminary Repertoire of Rule-Following to Children With Autism

Rule-governed behavior is generally considered an integral component of complex verbal repertoires but has rarely been the subject of empirical research. In particular, little or no previous research has attempted to establish rule-governed behavior in individuals who do not already display the repertoire. This study consists of two experiments that evaluated multiple exemplar training procedures for teaching a simple component skill, which may be necessary for developing a repertoire of rule-governed behavior. In both experiments, children with autism were taught to respond to simple rules that specified antecedents and the behaviors that should occur in their presence. In the first study, participants were taught to respond to rules containing "if/then" statements, where the antecedent was specified before the behavior. The second experiment was a replication and extension of the first. It involved a variation on the manner in which rules were presented. Both experiments eventually demonstrated generalization to novel rules for all participants; however variations to the standard procedure were required for several participants. Results suggest that rule-following can be analyzed and taught as generalized operant behavior and implications for future research are discussed.     

Prevention of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) in office work: a case study

Twelve recently built office work stations, where jobs imply continued use of information and communication technologies, were analyzed for ergonomic risk factors. Based on a literature review of ergonomic recommendations for computer and general office work, a checklist was devised for assistance in identifying inadequate ergonomic situations, a process that was informed by pain complaints information. RULA (Rapid Upper Limb Assessment) was selected to estimate the risk of MSDs, considering the criteria of applicability and appropriateness to the case studied. This method was applied by an occupational health and safety technician to the most critical job observed in the workplace. Criticality was estimated through observations aided by the systematic use of a checklist tailored to the specific office scenario. Recommendations for change were provided for implementation in all workplaces in the office, in order to improve work conditions, and guide the setup of a MSD prevention training program.     

Prisoner Citizen: Carl Upchurch,Labeling Theory,and Symbolic Interactionism

The life of Carl Upchurch offers a personal example of labeling theory and symbolic interactionism in action. According to labeling theory, behaviors are explained by the reactions received from audiences. Three of the audiences that respond to the behavior of an individual are society at large, agents of social control, and significant others. Upchurch demonstrated how deviant behavior became normal and how being labeled deviant made normal behavior difficult. Symbolic interactionism stresses the importance of learning and social interaction and sees people as being proactive rather than reactive, active and not passive. Through his love of books, Upchurch took charge of his life and moved from being a prisoner citizen to an educator.