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131.
Prior to the first democratic elections, South Africa had experienced severe political violence. In this paper, we describe the effects of this violence on mental health, concentrating mainly on post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and its symptoms, including reliving aspects of the trauma, avoiding situations which remind one of the experience, and heightened irritability. As part of a nationwide survey on health inequalities covering 4000 South African households, questions were put to 3870 respondents aged 16 to 64 years on their mental health status, feelings of powerlessness, exposure to violence and other traumatic situations, symptoms of PTSD and access to health care for these symptoms. Weighted survey results indicate that approximately five million adults (23% of the population aged 16 to 64 years) had been exposed to one or more violent events, for example, being attacked, participating in violence and witnessing one's home being burnt. Just under four-fifths (78%) of those who had experienced at least one traumatic event had one or more symptoms of PTSD. This syndrome was found to be related to feelings of powerlessness, anxiety and depression and fair or poor self-ratings of emotional well-being. The authors concluded that healing the people of South Africa involves revealing the full extent of political violence that was committed during the apartheid era, confronting the effects of this violence, and establishing both professional and community structures to deal with it on a large scale, for example, the training of lay people to give counselling.  相似文献   
132.
This paper argues that inequality and relative deprivation are the main problems to be addressed in the country, based on the denial of access to facilities and equal opportunities by the previous apartheid government. It focuses on the stark contrasts in living conditions and life-styles between blacks and whites, males and females, urban and non-urban people, the employed and the unemployed, and those doing formal versus those doing informal work. It is based on the findings of the 1994 October Household Survey (OHS) of South Africa's Central Statistical Service. The findings show that Africans, who constitute 76% of the population, are more likely to be affected by inequality and relative deprivation. As many as 64% of Africans of all ages, and 70% of Africans aged between 0 and 15 years, live in non-urban areas. Africans are more likely than other population groups to live in shacks in urban areas and in traditional dwellings in non-urban areas, and to have less access to domestic infrastructure such as water, sanitation and electricity. They have also received less education, and are therefore less able to compete with others for jobs in the formal economy. The informal economy consists mainly of service and trade businesses, with little scope for new employment creation. The UNDP's Human Development Index is much lower for Africans, compared to whites. On the basis of the findings, it is argued that large-scale development programmes are required to overcome the inequalities of the past. If this does not happen, there is a danger that there will be insufficient high-level skills in the country to sustain economic growth.  相似文献   
133.
Research on the intergenerational transmission of incarceration tends to emphasize the strong association between fathers' involvement with the criminal justice system and sons' behavioral outcomes, such as experiencing incarceration. The father–son association in incarceration risks is, however, not the only mechanism through which these risks may travel across generations. Although female rates of incarceration are generally low (even for women who experienced parental incarceration when they were girls), women could transmit incarceration risks across generations through their choice of partner. This article uses administrative data on three generations in Denmark to show that assortative mating—the nonrandom selection of partners with similar characteristics—indeed make women just as likely as men to transmit incarceration risks across generations.  相似文献   
134.
During the Intervention Project on Absence and Well-being (IPAW), a 5-year project conducted in Denmark, we investigated psychosocial work environment factors as independent predictors of the number of absence days per year. The present two-year longitudinal study used the IPAW cohort, but was not intended to study intervention effects, which will be reported later. Data were derived from baseline questionnaires and employers' registers of absence for 1919 participants (1305 women, 614 men, mainly in low-skilled jobs) in different occupations from 52 workplaces. These workplaces included municipal care, municipal technical services and a large pharmaceutical company. Analyses were performed by Poisson regression accounting for over-dispersion. After controlling for age, family type, health behaviours and physical work environment variables, we found that high levels of decision authority predicted low absence rates in both women and men. We tested two new psychosocial constructs developed for this study: Predictability (relating to being informed on future events at work) and Meaning of Work (relating to how meaningful and useful the work is perceived to be). Higher Predictability was a significant predictor of lower absence rates in men. This study adds to the body of evidence that the psychosocial working environment influences absence and should therefore be considered to be an important target for intervention.  相似文献   
135.
A population-based study was performed in southern Sweden in the autumn of 1998. The aim was to study connections between self-reported health, self-esteem and social support among unemployed (≥ three months) young people. The sample consisted of 264 unemployed individuals aged 20–25 years, and 528 individuals of the same age, randomly selected from the population register and not registered as unemployed. The response rate was 72%. Defined by means of factor analysis, mental health consisted of the symptoms tearfulness, dysphoria, sleeping disturbance, restlessness, general fatigue and irritability. The unemployed had more mental health problems than young people who were working or studying. Restlessness and dysphoria were significantly over-represented in the unemployed among both sexes. However, good social support seemed to predict mental health. Support from parents was most important, particularly in males. Those with low self-esteem and poor parental support were especially vulnerable.  相似文献   
136.
Combining work and family responsibilities is challenging when children have special needs, and mothers commonly make employment‐related adjustments. In this study, the authors examined associations between maternal work absence and child language impairment and behavior problems in preschool children. Questionnaire data at child age 3 years from 33,778 mothers participating in the prospective population‐based Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study were linked to national register data on employment and long‐term physician‐certified sick leave at child age 3–5 years. Mothers who reported having a child with language impairment had a consistently higher risk of not being employed and were at increased risk of taking long‐term sick leave at child age 5 years. Co‐occurring problems were associated with excess risk. Language impairments in preschool children, in particular when they are co‐occurring with behavior problems, are likely to have a range of negative short‐ and long‐term consequences for the financial and overall health and well‐being of mothers and their families.  相似文献   
137.
A unique examination strategy in first‐year microeconomics courses is used to test for gender differences in examination behavior. Students have the possibility of attaining a seminar bonus on the final exam for near‐perfect seminar attendance and are given two voluntary initial quizzes during the semester. At the final exam, the scores received on initial quizzes can either be accepted as is, or students can attempt to improve their marks by answering similar quiz questions on the exam. Results suggest that female students are more likely to take initial quizzes and receive a seminar bonus but are less likely to re‐take quiz questions on the final exam. These results suggest higher risk aversion, less overconfidence, and more self‐discipline or less procrastination among female students relative to male students. Our estimated behavioral differences may have important implications in terms of final grades on the course. (JEL I21, J16, A12, A14)  相似文献   
138.
Happiness and Satisfaction with Work Commute   总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1  
Research suggests that for many people happiness is being able to make the routines of everyday life work, such that positive feelings dominate over negative feelings resulting from daily hassles. In line with this, a survey of work commuters in the three largest urban areas of Sweden show that satisfaction with the work commute contributes to overall happiness. It is also found that feelings during the commutes are predominantly positive or neutral. Possible explanatory factors include desirable physical exercise from walking and biking, as well as that short commutes provide a buffer between the work and private spheres. For longer work commutes, social and entertainment activities either increase positive affects or counteract stress and boredom. Satisfaction with being employed in a recession may also spill over to positive experiences of work commutes.  相似文献   
139.
Most balance training regimens for elderly individuals focus on self-controlled exercises, although automatic postural responses after a balance perturbation are not under direct volitional control. We critically review the literature on this topic, and notice that several studies fail to comply with basic principles of training and therefore show little improvement in function. Some present the view that physical function in the too frail and too fit cannot be improved, which we instead argue would be the effect of nonspecific training programs. We propose a concept for balance training that incorporates voluntary exercises as well as perturbation and dual-task exercises to improve balance control. The program is performed on five different levels where levels 1–4 exercises focus on the skill to maintain balance and level 5 adds perturbation exercises that focus on the skill to recover balance as well as dual task exercises providing a cognitive load during execution of a balance motor task. Functional requirements for muscle strength and power are directly incorporated into the program. The feasibility of the concept has been demonstrated on elderly fallers. A randomized control trial is underway to investigate the effects on healthy elderly individuals. Further intervention studies using this concept are encouraged.  相似文献   
140.
As an integrative research effort, the present study critically analyzed the relative importance of six leadership constructs—(1) transformational, (2) transactional, (3) laissez‐faire, (4) consideration, (5) initiating structure, and (6) leader‐member exchange (LMX)—as predicting indicators of leadership effectiveness in the for‐profit versus the nonprofit sector. Based on data from seven samples from the for‐profit and nonprofit sectors, the unique effects of the six leadership constructs were tested on three criteria of leadership effectiveness on the individual level: job satisfaction, affective commitment, and perceived job performance. The results for the for‐profit samples revealed that LMX was the most important aspect for explaining variance in job satisfaction, and initiating structure was most important for commitment. In the nonprofit samples, LMX was the most important aspect of job satisfaction and transformational leadership for commitment. In both for‐profit and nonprofit organizations, initiating structure had the strongest unique impact on perceived job performance. We discuss implications for current leadership research and practical implications.  相似文献   
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