Towards a comprehensive green infrastructure typology: a systematic review of approaches,methods and typologies

There is no consensus on a comprehensive classification for green infrastructure (GI). This is a consequence of the diversity of disciplines, application contexts, methods, terminologies, purposes and valuation criteria for which a GI typology is required. The aim of this systematic literature review is to evaluate the existing evidence on how GI is being categorised and characterised worldwide. We reviewed a total of 85 studies from 15 countries that were analysed for contextual trends, methods, parameters and typologies. Results show that relevant literature lacks a common terminology and that a universal typology for all scenarios is impractical. Analysis reveals that GI can be organised into four main GI categories: (a) tree canopy, (b) green open spaces, (c) green roofs and (d) vertical greenery systems (facades/walls). Green open spaces and tree canopy attracted the attention of researchers due to their complexity, variability and important roles in GI planning. Evidence suggests that a ternary approach in terms of the functional (purpose, use, services), structural (morphology) and configurational (spatial arrangements) attributes of GI should be applied for a more comprehensive classification. Although this approximation is inherently generic, since it can be used across different research disciplines, it is also sufficiently specific to be implemented for individual scopes, scenarios and settings. Further research is needed to develop a typology capable of responding to particular research aims and performance analyses based upon the findings discussed in this paper.     

Peer Estimates of School-Aged Boys' and Girls'Aggression to Same- and Cross-Sex Targets

Research comparing boys' and girls' aggression has typically focused on the overall amount of aggression using a within-sex design. Less attention has been given to differences in children's aggression according to the sex of the target. In the research reported here, boys' and girls' amount and style of aggression were compared for same- and cross-sex targets. A peer estimation procedure was used with children in Grades 2, 6, 9, and 11. Physical, verbal, and indirect aggression were studied. Although there were some differences according to Grade level, both the amount and style of aggression for boys and for girls differed as a function of the sex of target, with cross-sex aggression generally falling between the amount and style of boys -to-boys and girls-to-girls aggression. The results draw attention to the possible separate nature of the cross-sex context, and highlight the importance of taking into account the target of aggression when investigating differences in aggression between boys and girls.     

Current issues in clinical research and the development of new pharmaceuticals

As a normal part of the drug development process, U.S. pharmaceutical companies conduct many thousands of clinical trials each year. Only after a reasonable assurance of safety is made can the drug be given to patients who have the underlying medical condition that the drug is designed to treat. Patient welfare is assured by adhering to the Food and Drug Administration's interpretation of the “common rule”; if the data will be used to support a licensing application. 21 CFR Part 50 sets forth the regulations along with the principles of informed consent and the use of institutional review boards (IRBs) that assure patients’ rights are protected. Any potential conflict of interest on the part of a clinical investigator must be reported to the FDA. Pharmaceutical companies extensively monitor ongoing clinical trials for compliance with appropriate regulations. The recent revision of the Declaration of Helsinki governing placebo‐controlled clinical trials may adversely impact drug development     

Whither the Third Sector? A Response to Estelle James

Nonprofit research and resulting theory have evolved in a limited context of North American and West European historical experience, culture, and political economy. Recognizing this fact, Estelle James proposes, among other things, a widening of the research arena. This response to her proposals argues that existing studies of nonprofits involved in international development already provide significant comparative evidence that can enrich existing theory. This body of work suggests complementary and alternative research priorities.     

Risk Perception in the U.K. Oil and Gas Production Industry: Are Expert Loss‐Prevention Managers' Perceptions Different From Those of Members of the Public?

This article investigates potential differences in risk perception between experts (loss-prevention managers in the U.K. oil and gas production industry) and nonexperts (managers and students). Extant research on expert versus nonexpert perceptions of risk is reviewed, followed by the present study concerning risk perceptions of seven pen-picture scenarios involving the occurrence of hazardous events in the U.K. oil and gas production industry. In contrast to many of the earlier studies of expert versus nonexpert perceptions of risk, the present analysis concludes that experts did not judge the overall riskiness of the portrayed hazardous events as less risky than the nonexperts. Nevertheless, the experts believe more strongly than our nonexperts that the risks portrayed in the scenarios pose little threat to future generations, are more precisely known, and are relatively controllable. Use of multiple regression analysis to help uncover the basis of overall riskiness assessments for expert and lay respondents was inconclusive, however. Finally, little evidence was found that nonexperts were any more heterogeneous in their risk perceptions than experts. It may be that the nature of the risks assessed in the present study may account for the general lack of clear expert versus nonexpert differences in overall perceptions of the riskiness of hazardous events in the North Sea. Earlier findings of strong expert versus nonexpert differences in risk perception assessed hazards of major public concern. It is inferred that using such extreme hazards may have resulted in an exaggerated view of differences in expert versus public (nonexpert) perception of risk.     

A comment on sample size calculations for binomial confidence intervals

In this article we examine sample size calculations for a binomial proportion based on the confidence interval width of the Agresti–Coull, Wald and Wilson Score intervals. We pointed out that the commonly used methods based on known and fixed standard errors cannot guarantee the desired confidence interval width given a hypothesized proportion. Therefore, a new adjusted sample size calculation method was introduced, which is based on the conditional expectation of the width of the confidence interval given the hypothesized proportion. With the reduced sample size, the coverage probability can still maintain at the nominal level and is very competitive to the converge probability for the original sample size.     

Ratio estimates and fieller's theorem in regression modelling

This paper presents applications of statistical linear models in which a confidence interval is required for the ratio of linear combinations of the model's parameters, Fieller's theorem is used to obtain the solution.