On Elements of Chance

One aspect of the utility of gambling may evidence itself in failures of idempotence, i.e., when all chance outcomes give rise to the same consequence the `gamble' may not be indifferent to its common consequence. Under the assumption of segregation, such gambles can be expressed as the joint receipt of the common consequence and what we call `an element of chance', namely, the same gamble with the common consequence replaced by the status quo. Generalizing, any gamble is indifferent to the joint receipt of its element of chance and a certain consequence, which is called the `kernel equivalent' of the gamble. Under idempotence, the kernel equivalent equals the certainty equivalent. Conditions are reported (Theorem 4) that are sufficient for the kernel equivalents to have the kind of utility representation first discussed by Luce and Fishburn (1991), including being idempotent. This utility representation of the kernel equivalents together with the derived form of utility over joint receipts yields a utility representation of the original structure. Possible forms for the utility of an element of chance are developed.     

写作教学与创造性思维的培养

分析写作和创造性思维的相互促进的关系，结合实际探讨怎样通过写作教学提高学生的写作能力和思维创新能力。     

Politics and Growth

Theories of growth have made progress in understanding the mechanisms of growth in economic terms. However, there is less understanding of the political processes that enable or obstruct these mechanisms. This article provides a four‐stage framework to clarify and analyse the connections between politics and growth: (i) discussing the basic conditions essential for growth; (ii) suggesting that whether or not these conditions emerge depends on specific forms of public‐private interaction; (iii) linking these relationships to the incentives facing those in political power and investors; and (iv) considering the factors at country level that may help to push incentives in a pro‐growth direction.     

Getting reluctant substance abusers to engage in treatment/self-help: a review of outcomes and clinical options

This review examines the results from 19 outcome studies, involving 1,501 cases, within 10 different clinical approaches to getting alcohol or drug abusers to engage in treatment or self-help. Each approach is summarized and its "success rate(s)" presented. Comparisons are made across various subcategories, such as alcohol vs. drug abusers, adolescents vs. adults, and experimental conditions vs. controls. A distinction is drawn between "Dual-Purpose" approaches, which combine engagement with counseling of the concerned person who originally sought help for the substance abuser, and "Engagement-Primary" approaches, which generally confine their efforts (through working with family members and others) to getting the substance abuser into treatment/self-help. "Best bet" clinical options are presented in terms of which particular approach appears to have the edge with which kind of substance abuser.     

Bicycle ergometry in subacute-stroke survivors: feasibility, safety, and exercise performance

This study evaluated the feasibility, safety, and findings from a protocol for exercise-bicycle ergometry in subacute-stroke survivors. Of 117 eligible candidates, 14 could not perform the test and 3 discontinued because of cardiac safety criteria. In the 100 completed tests, peak heart rate was 116 +/- 19.1 beats/min; peak VO(2) was 11.4 +/- 3.7 ml x kg x min(-1), peak METs were 3.3 +/- 0.91, exercise duration was 5.1 +/- 2.84 min, and Borg score was 14 +/- 2.6. Among 71 tests, anaerobic threshold was achieved in 3.0 +/- 1.7 min with a VO(2) of 8.6 +/- 1.7 ml x kg x min(-1). After screening, this protocol is feasible and safe in subacute-stroke survivors with mild to moderate deficits. These stroke survivors have severely limited functional exercise capacity. Research and clinical practice in stroke rehabilitation should incorporate more comprehensive evaluation and treatment of endurance limitations.