Norms,Theories of Punishment,and Publicly Preferred Penalties for Crimes*

Despite growing interest in publicly preferred punishments for criminal offenses, investigators have paid relatively little attention to the criteria used by the public to determine appropriate punishments for different offenses. Classical theories of punishment and sociological conceptions of norms suggest two possible criteria: the perceived frequency and seriousness of offenses. Data from four independent Sample surveys of the adult residents of a southwestern metropolitan area are used to determine the effects of these two variables on the severity of preferred punishments for nineteen offenses. When the age and prior record of the offender are held constant, the seriousness of the offense is the central criterion used to determine appropriate punishments. These results cast serious doubts on recent claims that publicly preferred punishments are based on utilitarian motives.     

Exposure Assessment Approaches for Engineered Nanomaterials

Products based on nanotechnology are rapidly emerging in the marketplace, sometimes with little notice to consumers of their nanotechnology pedigree. This wide variety of nanotechnology products will result (in some cases) in unintentional human exposure to purposely engineered nanoscale materials via the dermal, inhalation, ingestion, and ocular pathways. Occupational, consumer, and environmental exposure to the nanomaterials should be characterized during the entire product lifecycle—manufacture, use, and disposal. Monitoring the fate and transport of engineered nanomaterials is complicated by the lack of detection techniques and the lack of a defined set of standardized metrics to be consistently measured. New exposure metrics may be required for engineered nanomaterials, but progress is possible by building on existing tools. An exposure metric matrix could organize existing data by relating likely exposure pathways (dermal, inhalation, ocular, ingestion) with existing measurements of important characteristics of nanoscale materials (particle number, mass, size distribution, charge). Nanomaterial characteristics not commonly measured, but shown to initiate a biological response during toxicity testing, signal a need for further research, such as the pressing need to develop monitoring devices capable of measuring those aspects of engineered nanomaterials that result in biological responses in humans. Modeling the behavior of nanoparticles may require new types of exposure models that individually track particles through the environment while keeping track of the particle shape, surface area, and other surface characteristics as the nanoparticles are transformed or become reactive. Lifecycle analysis could also be used to develop conceptual models of exposure from engineered nanomaterials.     

Where do IPBES delegates in Europe see challenges,needs, gaps and opportunities in policy uptake of “Nature’s contributions to people”?

This research note illustrates how European national delegates to the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) perceive the challenges, needs, gaps and opportunities related to the policy implementation of “Nature’s contributions to people (NCP)” in their nation. Until now, only little information has been available on how IPBES delegations perceive national policy-uptake and the implementation of the IPBES core concept of NCP. Based on an online survey with IPBES delegates, we aim to provide a stock-take of how IPBES delegations see NCP currently being incorporated in national government policies in Europe and how these policies are being implemented through programmes. Survey results show IPBES delegates consider a lack of relevant data and methodologies for NCP assessments to be a major obstacle to the uptake and implementation of NCP concepts in Europe. We wonder if availability of data and methodologies are the most prominent challenges to make IPBES a success, and consider the need for policy uptake and implementation to be more prominently addressed within the IPBES process.     

Is diversity bad for economic growth?: Evidence from state-level data in the US

The paper examines the macroeconomic effects of social diversity in the United States. Employing a cross-sectional dataset for 48 states, we find mixed empirical evidence for the impact of diversity on Gross State Product (GSP) per capita growth: racial diversity reduces GSP growth, while linguistic diversity raises GSP growth. Our findings suggest that because English is used frequently by non-native speakers barriers to communications based on race are more pronounced and enduring than those based on linguistic differences. The results provide a justification for establishing ‘weak ties’ across diverse racial groups as a means to enhance economic performance.     

Long Memory Regressors and Predictive Testing: A Two-stage Rebalancing Approach

Predictability tests with long memory regressors may entail both size distortion and incompatibility between the orders of integration of the dependent and independent variables. Addressing both problems simultaneously, this paper proposes a two-step procedure that rebalances the predictive regression by fractionally differencing the predictor based on a first-stage estimation of the memory parameter. Extensive simulations indicate that our procedure has good size, is robust to estimation error in the first stage, and can yield improved power over cases in which an integer order is assumed for the regressor. We also extend our approach beyond the standard predictive regression context to cases in which the dependent variable is also fractionally integrated, but not cointegrated with the regressor. We use our procedure to provide a valid test of forward rate unbiasedness that allows for a long memory forward premium.     

Dental Manpower

A recent report by the Department of Health and Society Security (DHSS) has argued that a 10% reduction in the intake to dental schools is needed if an oversupply of dentists over the next forty years is to be avoided. Whilst welcoming this recommendation it is likely that it may not go far enough. In this article we describe the approach used in the DHSS report to estimate the demand for and supply of dental care and examine the relevance and implications of the methods used and assumptions made in that report.
It is argued that the use of extrapolations of past trends and the absence of sensitivity analysis in much of the analysis implies that little confidence can be placed in the estimates and that on balance the conclusions of the report are likely to lead to an excess supply of dentists over the next forty years. Recommendations are made for improving the planning of the future supply of dentists.     

Traditional Gift Giving Among Pacific Families in New Zealand

The Pacific population in New Zealand is socially disadvantaged and over-represented in adverse social and health statistics. A cohort of 1,376 mothers of Pacific infants were asked about traditional gift commitments and the effect that these commitments had on the financial situation in their household. Sixty-two percent reported that they and/or their partner usually gave to their family or church, with 66.5% of this group giving to family in New Zealand, 58% to family in the Pacific Islands, and 75.9% to their church. Fifty-nine percent of these mothers reported that this gift commitment made their household financial situation more difficult. Factors significantly associated with gift giving are discussed, together with implications of these findings for Pacific families living New Zealand.     

Structural Adjustment in Lesotho: An Evaluation

This paper evaluates the 1988–90 structural adjustment program in Lesotho using a computable general equilibrium model. It finds that the program failed to rectify a balance of payments problem, and that without a massive inflow of capital for a water project the country would be facing a major balance of payments crisis. Lesotho’s experience suggests that structural adjustment need not work against the poor, and that the balance of payments objective may be achieved by reducing recurrent government expenditures, other than wages.