EXCHANGE PROCESSES IN HISTORY: INTEGRATING THE MICRO AND MACRO LEVELS OF ANALYSIS

The existing form of social exchange theory has serious flaws. Yet, this article argues that exchange theory should and can be a powerful tool for analysis at both the micro and macro levels. A model of exchange is developed that: (1) includes temporality; (2) includes both positive and negative sanctions; (3) defines rationality and voluntariness in such a way as to account for long-term, stable systems of unequal exchange; and (4) links the micro and macro levels of analysis. Selective historical materials are introduced to analyze the problem of routine, peaceful, unequal exchange between Romans and barbarians inside the Roman Empire. In interpersonal exchange, it shows, all the terms of exchange are not negotiated by the partners to exchange. Governing rules have been established by collective actors at the macro level for social exchange at the micro level. Traditional exchange theory has failed to identify the historically distant conflict of macro level actors over governing rules.     

The role of social skills in encoding posed and spontaneous facial expressions

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationships between social skills and the abilities to express emotions intentionally and spontaneously. Students were videotaped during two tasks: a) while watching a series of emotionally arousing slides; and b) while posing emotional facial expressions. Judges viewing the videotapes determined how accurately the subjects could express emotions. Results suggested that certain social skills do underlie the ability to express emotions. Specifically, the ability to be emotionally expressive, but not ability to control emotions, is related to spontaneous sending ability. Expressive ability, coupled with role-playing skills, is related to posed sending ability. Additionally, the abilities to express emotions intentionally and spontaneously are positively related, suggesting that these two abilities involve some common, underlying social skill components.The authors would like to thank Charles Salinas for his assistance in the data collection.     

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF FAMILY INTERVENTIONS IN THE TREATMENT OF PHYSICAL ILLNESS

Although a large body of research demonstrates that the family has a powerful influence on physical health, the evidence for the effectiveness of family interventions in physical illness is less conclusive. Family therapy and other family interventions appear to be most effective in chronic childhood illnesses such as asthma and diabetes. Family interventions have also been shown to be effective in the management of some cardiovascular and neurologic disorders and for the treatment of obesity. Family therapy appears to be more effective than individual therapy for some groups of patients with anorexia nervosa. This research supports the increasingly important role of medical family therapy in the new health care system. Recommendations for future research are discussed.