A statistical framework for ecological and aggregate studies

Inference from studies that make use of data at the level of the area, rather than at the level of the individual, is more difficult for a variety of reasons. Some of these difficulties arise because frequently exposures (including confounders) vary within areas. In the most basic form of ecological study the outcome measure is regressed against a simple area level summary of exposure. In the aggregate data approach a survey of exposures and confounders is taken within each area. An alternative approach is to assume a parametric form for the within-area exposure distribution. We provide a framework within which ecological and aggregate data studies may be viewed, and we review some approaches to inference in such studies, clarifying the assumptions on which they are based. General strategies for analysis are provided including an estimator based on Monte Carlo integration that allows inference in the case of a general risk–exposure model. We also consider the implications of the introduction of random effects, and the existence of confounding and errors in variables.     

Indian student concerns about violence: exploring student perceptions

While considerable attention has been given to the spate of attacks on Indian students in Australia in 2009 and 2010, less attention has been paid to how the students who were at the centre of the furore perceived the violence. In this paper we explore the perceptions of Indian postgraduate and undergraduate male students studying in Melbourne, Australia, based on data gathered in focus groups. Analysis revealed four broad themes in students' explanations for the attacks: race hate versus opportunism, intercultural issues, systemic ineffectiveness, and media reporting. Students' perceptions of the reasons for the attacks were divided in some areas and aligned in others. There was divergence among students about whether the attacks were race hate crime or opportunistic, and about intercultural issues. Students' perceptions were aligned on issues of systemic ineffectiveness and media reporting. In the current context of decreased international enrolments from Indian students, in which we seek to better understand them, the findings provide implications for international student policy and planning priorities.     

Risk-Based Approaches to Deal with Uncertainty in a Data-Poor System: Stakeholder Involvement in Hazard Identification for Marine National Parks and Marine Sanctuaries in Victoria, Australia

Management responsibilities for the system of marine national parks and sanctuaries declared in Victoria, Australia in 2002 have created imperatives for robust, scientifically defendable approaches to identifying threats to valued ecological attributes of the parks, setting management priorities, and developing monitoring systems. We are developing a protocol for ecological risk assessment in the parks that has due regard for the perception of risks by individuals, and ensures that stakeholder values are an intrinsic part of decision making. The inclusive and transparent protocol provides an opportunity for stakeholder involvement in the identification of valued attributes, as well as in the assessment of associated risks. Our approach brings together ideas about how science enters the community engagement domain in ways that promote collaboration and transparency in decision making. A series of stakeholder workshops across the state drew on the expertise of agency staff, community groups, fishers, industry representatives, academics, and knowledgeable park neighbors to identify hazards of major concern in the parks. Many hazards involved predictable, tangible threats like pollution and exotic species, but the approach also identified a number of less obvious threats related to governance issues and the knowledge-base for the parks. Importantly, the workshops with their broad range of stakeholders identified threats not previously considered by the management agency in its internal assessments, and several of these "new" threats are already the subject of action by the agency. The deliberate incorporation of local knowledge and local networks in the risk assessment process also provided opportunities for greater engagement of stakeholders with the management agency.     

Formative evaluation of a motivational intervention for increasing physical activity in underserved youth

The present study was designed to develop an innovative motivational intervention (based on Self-Determination Theory and Social Cognitive Theory) to increase physical activity (PA) in underserved adolescents. Sixty-four adolescents (35 females, 29 males; 50% minority; 65% on reduced lunch program; ages 11-13 yr) participated in either an 8-week motivational intervention after-school (n = 32) or a typical after-school program (n = 32). The conceptual framework for the intervention targeted the social environment (perceived autonomy, perceived social support, participation, fun), cognitive mediators (perceived choice, self-efficacy, and relatedness/belongingness), and motivational orientation (intrinsic motivation, commitment, positive self-concept). Formative evaluation data was collected by staff through daily forms throughout the 8-week program and through observational data completed by independent objective observers during 2 weeks of the program. The major themes that were identified addressed theoretical concepts regarding the intervention and logistical issues in delivering the intervention. The data revealed information regarding the importance of the cognitive appropriateness of the PA and motivational activities, the environmental climate for promoting nurturing relationships, developing specific strategies for increasing intrinsic rather than extrinsic reinforcement, and developing methods for preventing social "cliques" and gender conflicts to maintain an appropriate level of support in the social climate. Themes for training staff included focusing on team building, leadership, and nurturing. This formative evaluation is being used to formalize a randomized trial to test the effects of a student-centered motivational intervention on increasing PA in underserved 6th graders.     

Longing to belong: children in residential care and their experiences of peer relationships at school and in the children's home

Resilience literature has stressed the potential of both children's educational experiences and their friendships to act as protective factors against adversity. However, less is known about how children living with adversity navigate these ‘everyday’ aspects of social terrain and the particular challenges that they face. This paper explores the meaning and experience of peer relationships to one group of children living in residential care in Ireland. Drawing on a larger study of school and care, it explores data gathered from 16 children, aged 8 to 18, who were living in eight different children's homes on the east coast of Ireland. The findings suggest that the children were acutely aware of their ‘care’ status and developed a number of strategies to manage this identity in school. It appears that more often than not, children described being left to their own devises to manage friendships and peer relationships. Thus, despite being a crucial source of both stress and support, peer relationships did not appear to be regarded as an issue that adults should be involved with. This raises questions for practice about what children should be supported with and the way in which peer relationships are potentially overlooked by social work, residential and school staff.     

Participation in practice: making it meaningful,effective and sustainable

Children's participation in decision‐making is complex: it is undertaken for different purposes and is reflected in different levels of involvement, different contexts and different activities. This paper reviews the current state of participation and, drawing on practice and research literature, highlights several aspects of practice where further consideration is needed if participation is to develop positively. This suggests that, if participation is to be more meaningful to children and effective in influencing change, it is necessary to move beyond one‐off or isolated participation and consider how participation becomes embedded as an integral part of our relationship with children.     

The Health and Social Functions of Black Midwives on the Texas Brazos Bottom, 1920–1985

Abstract This paper concerns black midwives who practiced traditional medicine in six central Texas counties, mostly located on the Brazos River. During the years of hospital segregation following the Civil War, the black midwife performed two major functions. Through formal connections with white physicians who taught them the basics of obstetrical care, black midwives were able to provide a better level of health care for black women than otherwise would have been available. The same ties enabled the black midwife to secure assistance from whites for the rural black community. These arrangements improved the health and productivity of rural black families and lessened the severity of the caste system. A sharp decline in the use of black midwives occurred when desegregation reduced training opportunities and the market for their services.     

Bridging the gap: Investigating the abuse of children with multiple disabilities

This is a summary of a series of practical papers written to help bridge the ‘gap’ between the fields of child protection and childhood disability, with a view to improving practice in child protection work with severely disabled children. Particular attention is paid to the needs of children using alternative communication systems. The theme of the paper is that disabled children are in most senses just like other children, but may have particular needs in relation to the investigation of abuse, as well as being particularly vulnerable to abuse. Issues around the assessment of suspicion, preparation for interviewing and the interview process are presented. The needs of the child, the accompanying adult and the child protection worker are considered. Guidelines and recommendations for practice at different stages of the investigation are given. The need to adapt the investigation to the particular needs of the child is emphasized throughout.