Modelling the Inverse Association between Breastfeeding and Contraceptive Use

Previous studies of the inverse association between breastfeeding and contraceptive use have relied on current status data on at least one of the variables. In this paper we suggest a new way of modelling the joint temporal association of the adoption of contraception and the termination of breastfeeding over the course of a birth interval. The approach is implemented with survey data from rural Mexico. It involves first estimating a competing-risks model in which both hazards are considered simultaneous, together with a set of relevant covariates. Conditional analyses are then carried out to estimate the hazards of each event conditional on the timing of the other. By comparing the covariates, we gauge the extent to which the occurrence of one event raises or lowers the hazard of the other. The results show that, in rural Mexico, the timing of the termination of breastfeeding and that of starting contraceptive use are closely related, and that there exists a surprisingly neat interval of 120 days in which the action takes place.     

The resettlement in Canada of 4,527 Polish ex‐servicemen, 1946–47

After the Second World War, a Canadian immigration policy was negotiated with the United Kingdom whereby Polish ex‐servicemen were resettled in Canada. The policy was developed and presented with great care and resulted in 4,527 Polish ex‐servicemen coming to Canada in 1946 and 1947. Domestic and international functions and dysfunctions of the scheme for Canada and the Polish ex‐servicemen are analysed to determine its success or failure. With regard to the short‐ and long‐term contributions the Poles made to agriculture, the scheme was a failure.     

Credential inflation and educational strategies: A comparison of the United States and the Netherlands

This paper analyzes the trend in the effect of education on social class attainment, and uses this information to test hypotheses on the impact of credential inflation on educational decision making in the United States and the Netherlands. After having shown evidence for credential inflation of three educational transitions, it was shown that credential inflation between two generations increased the likelihood of making a transition into tertiary education in the Netherlands, and into high school completion and into 4-year university degrees in the United States. This supports the theory that education functions as a positional good, and if education loses value people need more of it in order to reach the same social class as their parents. Cross-national variation is explained with the theory that education in the United States functions more as a positional good than it does in the Netherlands.     

The growing gap between facts and discourse on immigrant integration in the Netherlands

The Netherlands’ recent history of dealing with immigrant integration provides an excellent example of the dangers of thinking in terms of fixed ‘national’ integration models. When first confronted with large-scale immigration, the Netherlands embarked on a policy of multiculturalism. Its current approach is one of the most assimilationist in Western Europe: several in-between forms have also been tried out. This article describes the evolution of Dutch thinking and Dutch policy-making on immigrant integration over the past few decades, and it analyses why the country has switched so frequently from one model to another. The harsher approach of this moment can be explained neither by major shifts that might have occurred in public opinion, nor by the actual course of the immigrant integration process, which has been advancing steadily. The root causes of the growing gap between facts and discourse lie in popular anxiety provoked by profound changes in Dutch society.     

The interaction of pillars in multi‐pillar pension systems: A comparison of Canada,Denmark, Netherlands and Sweden

Canada, Denmark, the Netherlands and Sweden have advanced multi‐pillar pension systems. Using micro‐simulations, this article presents a close examination of the interaction of pillars in these countries. The relative importance and the role of the different pension pillars vary from country to country, and according to age, income, gender and socio‐economic dimensions as well as between generations. A further area of investigation is the mitigation capacity of the four pension systems. On the one hand, adverse labour careers lead to lower life‐time earnings and lower private pension accruals. On the other hand, these effects are mitigated through the design of pillars and their interaction. Mitigation is important to income security and stability in retirement and to post‐retirement income distribution. However, mitigation mechanisms come at the cost of incentives. Moreover, in many countries, the generosity of public benefits is set to decrease – increasing the importance of private pensions. This will shift risk and uncertainty from employers and pension institutions to individuals. Thus, risks and uncertainties related to private pensions will become more important, raising questions about the division of responsibilities between public and private pensions, and about the potential of mitigating such risk through pillar interaction. These concerns are further reinforced by labour market changes. Although a pension system free of distortions is inconceivable, this article seeks to contribute to addressing how mitigation should be designed, and how mitigation and risk sharing should be balanced against incentives, challenges which are as much political as technical.     

Some neglected determinants of welfare functions

The welfare concept is central to economics and to some topical problems, requiring interdisciplinary research. Psychology, biology and pedagogics may be important contributors. Economists have overemphasized economic, and among these consumption, aspects. A learning process to reduce unhealthy consumption remains topical. On the production side the diversity of labor types has been neglected. Here a central problem is job choice by maximizing welfare. Variables needed are capabilities required by jobs and personality traits. We ignore the number of independent characteristics. Path analysis with inherited and learnable traits may be extended by data on grandparents and on non-cognitive capabilities. A more precise production function of education is badly lacking. Two methods of measuring welfare functions and the shape of the latter are discussed.     

The Philanthropic Poor: In Search of Explanations for the Relative Generosity of Lower Income Households

In this study we investigate the relationship between income and charitable giving. Previous research shows inconsistent findings regarding both the effect of income on the probability of giving and the proportion of income spent on charitable giving. We test hypotheses with the Giving in The Netherlands Panel Study 2003 (N = 1,316). We do not find an effect of income on the probability of giving, but a consistent negative effect of income on both total and religious donations as a proportion of income. This effect cannot be explained by stronger religious affiliation of lower income groups, or by other differences such as age, and price of giving. We find evidence in favor of a giving standard: Norms concerning the level of donations in specific situations that people in different income groups share, leading lower income groups to donate a higher proportion of their income.

Migration intentions of rural youth in the Westhoek, Flanders, Belgium and the Veenkoloniën, The Netherlands

‘Should I stay or should I leave my home region?’ is one of the key life course questions that many young people must address as they grow to maturity. Social mobility increasingly presupposes geographical mobility, especially in rural areas. The consequences of the selective out-migration of socially mobile young people (‘brain drain’) are seen as a threat to the economic development and reputation of rural areas. The out-migration of young rural people is often related to participation in higher education and entrance into the labour market. This paper focuses on the migration intentions of pupils in secondary education in two peripheral rural areas: The Westhoek in Flanders, Belgium and the Veenkoloniën in the Netherlands. It analyses, by means of logistic regression analysis, the migration intentions of 611 pupils in the Westhoek and 294 pupils in the Veenkoloniën in relation to their social background, migration history, perceptions of employment opportunities and the way they identify with their home region. In both regions, perceived employment opportunities and local attachment appear to be the most important factors explaining migration intentions. In the Veenkoloniën, in contrast with the Westhoek, migration history, educational level and representations of the region are also important factors determining the migration intentions of young people. These results can be explained by differences in the structure, culture and landscape of the two regions.     

19世纪五、六十年代日本对"西力东渐"的回应

19世纪五、六十年代 ,日本之根本问题是现代化的取向问题。对此客观问题的主观把握是日本在对“西力东渐”回应的不断转换中方得渐悟的。此回应过程大致经历了被动“开国”———攘夷运动的高涨———主动“开国” ,幕末的两大政治问题可视为对西方回应的两种不同方式。日本完成其发展路向的快速转换 ,不仅在于现代文明的挑战给予了日本一个必然选择 ,还在于其自身的优秀品质、历史因素及有利的国际环境