And Some of Us Are Braver: Stress and Coping Among African American Women

African American women fulfill many roles within their family and community. Most notably, these women are often defined by their “strength” and rarely seen as “vulnerable.” Many African American women demonstrate strength as they struggle to maintain employment, raise children, and nurture spouses and extended family, but these same women are at risk for a higher rate of health and emotional problems. In this article, the authors use relational cultural, stress and coping, and lifespan theories, along with Black feminist thought to discuss the interlocking effects of race, gender, and class regarding the psychological well-being of African American women 18 to 55 years old. We conclude with a discussion of research, practice, and teaching implications.     

Understanding and Reducing Stress and Psychological Distress in Older Women with Heart Disease

ABSTRACT

Stress and psychological distress were assessed in 457 older women who were subsequently randomized to a six-week heart disease management program (“Women take PRIDE”) or to a “usual care” control group. Baseline distress was significantly associated with age, symptoms, physical functioning, social support, optimism, and self-esteem (p < .05). Only 20% of women reported their physician had recommended reducing stress. At four months follow-up, intervention women compared to controls were significantly more likely to report reductions in stress levels (p = 0.02) and also showed improvement in emotional behavior (p = 0.09).     

Development of the Hassles of Environmental Poverty Instrument

Abstract

Contemporary research has shown that chronic hassles can be as debilitating as acute stress and may be more of a determinant in the development of mental and physical disorders. In fact, frequency and intensity of hassles can be better predictors of stress responses than major life events. Although daily hassles have been shown to be population specific, existing measures of hassles do not distinguish between the hassles that impact men and those that impact women, nor have they been normed on populations that are poor. The Hassles of Environmental Poverty (HOEP) Scale is a 74-item instrument designed to assess the stresses of daily mothering within the context of poverty. Items on the scale address mothering stressors with a level of detail not currently available in existing stress scales. In the paper, the authors report out the results of statistical analysis that were done on the field test respondents. The results indicated that the HOEP Scale can legitimately be used for practice and research purposes.     

Job characteristics as predictors of ill-health and sickness absenteeism in different occupational types--a multigroup structural equation modelling approach

The objective of the present study was to test for multigroup invariance in measurement models and structural models between job characteristics, psychosocial intervening variables, health outcomes and sickness absenteeism. Four types of occupation were represented in the study: blue-collar workers ( n = 241), white-collar workers ( n = 209), elderly-care workers ( n = 338) and child-care workers ( n = 336). A first-order, six-factor multigroup confirmatory factor analysis model (i.e. measurement model) composed of two perceived job characteristics ( job autonomy and skill discretion), appraised workload, job satisfaction, stress-related ill-health and sickness absenteeism provided a good model fit. Invariance tests showed that the six-factor model fits well for all occupations. A partially recursive mediated multigroup structural model showed both similarities and differences across occupations as regards the relationships between independent latent variables ( job autonomy, skill discretion), intervening latent variables (appraised workload, job satisfaction) and dependent latent variables (stressrelated ill-health, sickness absenteeism). By comparing a generic model with occupation-specific models across occupations, this study showed that occupation-specific models were more plausible. The results indicate that it is important to examine different occupational contexts in detail to better understand how certain psychosocial factors at work influence strain in different occupations. Since job characteristics can potentially be amended, the findings have important implications for the differentiation of prevention and intervention in different occupations.     

'Management Standards' and work-related stress in the UK: policy background and science

In the late 1990s, the Health and Safety Commission, as the lead authority in the UK responsible for Health and Safety at Work, conducted an extensive consultation exercise to elicit views about how work-related stress should be tackled. The Commission subsequently decided that regulation was not justified and opted for an approach with four strands. One of these was to work with stakeholders to develop clear, agreed standards of good management practice. This paper describes and discusses the rationale behind a standards-based approach that is essentially based on a method of controlling hazards. The Management Standards approach uses a taxonomy of six stressors that has evolved out of extensive research carried out on behalf of the UK's Health and Safety Executive (HSE) and in conjunction with stakeholders, and a three-phase risk assessment methodology. Further developmental work on the standards (which are to be subjected to public consultation) and associated measurement tools is described in a companion paper in this issue of Work & Stress (Cousins, Mackay, Clarke, Kelly, Kelly, & McCaig, 2004). The emphasis is on prevention towards reducing stress in the UK working population. We review current thinking on models of work stress, consider evidence linking workplace psychosocial factors and various health and organizational outcomes, and examine the effectiveness of organizational interventions. We argue that the literature supports an approach that aims to move organizational states (represented by the current situation) to more desirable ones (represented by the six Management Standards), and that this is an effective 'population' based approach to tackling workplace stress and promoting individual and organizational health.     

Are psychosocial factors associated with low-back pain among nursing personnel?

The aim of this study was to investigate whether psychosocial factors at work are related to low-back pain among nursing personnel. It was conducted as a short-term follow-up study of 200 Danish female nursing personnel, providing care for the elderly. Self-reported measures of psychosocial factors such as time pressure, emotional demands of clients, control and social support were obtained by questionnaire at baseline, while stress, physical exertion and low-back pain were reported by diary records made in two, three-day periods in the subsequent 6 months. The study examines the possible influence of psychosocial factors preceding low-back pain as well as stress and physical exertion reported simultaneously with low-back pain. Only stress was associated with low-back pain (Odds Ratio (OR)=2.3; Confidence Interval (CI)=1.3-3.9) while neither physical exertion or any of the psychosocial factors were related to low-back pain. A possible pathway connecting emotional demands of clients to low-back pain through the mediation of stress was suggested.     

Effects of neuroticism, extraversion, circadian type and age on reported driver stress

Studies have examined effects of various personality variables, including extraversion and neuroticism, as well as age, on driver stress. However, the effect of the morningness-eveningness dimension (circadian type) on reported driver stress among commuters has not been investigated. This study aimed to assess the influence of circadian type as well as extraversion, neuroticism and age on driver stress. Participants were 101 Australian university administrative staff who completed the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised, the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire, and also morning and evening driving diaries as a state measure of driver stress each weekday for one week. Two standard multiple regressions assessed whether neuroticism, extraversion, circadian type and age predicted reported driver stress for morning and evening drives. Neuroticism, circadian type, and age predicted reported driver stress in the mornings but age mainly predicted driver stress in the evenings. A repeated measures ANOVA isolated differences between circadian types for weekday mornings and evenings. Reported driver stress differed for day of week and time of day according to circadian type. The three-way interaction suggested that driver stress is influenced by circadian type and that factors influence driver stress differentially between mornings and evenings. Circadian type appears to influence when driver stress affects individuals.     

The impact of shiftwork on personnel at a nuclear power plant: An exploratory survey study

Shiftwork may constitute an additional risk factor in high-hazard industries where system failure could exact heavy human, environmental and economic costs. This exploratory survey study examined the impact of shiftwork upon nuclear power plant workers' perceived health, sleep, and social problem, as well as levels of alertness. Overall, the night shik proved to be the most problematic in ternis of decreases in alertness, sleep duration and quality, and disruptions to health, social and family life. The permanent shift preferences of the shiftworkers were also explored to establish the practicability of introducing a theoretically safer permanent mght shdt at such a facility. Importantly, the small proportion of the sample who showed a preference for a pemianent night shift was insufficient to provide operational cover. Although these shtftworkers reported experiencing less disruption on the night shift than those who would choose to work a permanent day shift, their preference appeared to be based upon a greater esprit de corps on this shift rather than on any predisposing individual characteristics. These results have practical implications for work scheduling in high-hazard industries.

The present study investigates the dimensional structure of the psychosocial work environment as assessed by Karasek's job characteristics scales and a set of factorial scales derived from the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) observers' ratings of occupational characteristics for census occupations. Scale scores on the Karasek and DOT were linked to information on occupation from the Epidemiologc Catchment Area (ECA) study sample. Scale intercorreladons and factor analysis were performed on those ECA subjects who reported ever having a full-time job (n=11,789). DOT'sS Substantive Complexity scale was positively correlated with Karasek's Skill Discretion and Decision Authority scales, and DOT's Physical Demands and Hazards scale was positively correlated with Karasek's Physical Demands scale. In addition, the DOT system compared to the Karasek system seems to assess psychosocial work domains less characteristic of traditional industrial jobs (interpersonal stress, expressive work). The content validity of the Karasek scales might be increased with the assessment of these domains. Giving support to Karasek's Demand/Control Model, the factor structure of the psychosocial work enviromnent in the probability sample of five US metropolitan populations yielded two major dimensions: Control, and Physical Demands.     

A re-analysis of the occupational stress indicator

This paper investigates the reliability of the Occupational Stress Indicator (OSI). Data from a sample of university staff, drawn from all areas of an urban university, are used to reassess the apparently low reliabilities of many of the OSI subscales reported by Cooper et al. (1988). In addition, factor analysis results are reported for the first time for the sources of pressure data. The reliability data reported here, while higher reliabilities than originally obtained, remain unacceptably low. A lack of stability in the device as it is currently formulated seems apparent. The paper also presents for the first time a detailed analysis of the sources of pressure scale, indicating a solution different from that proposed by Cooper et al. (1988). Certain areas of the OSI clearly need refinement; the inclusion of locus of control and type A behaviour as personality variables in particular is called into question. Observations regarding the particular strengths and weaknesses of this device, and suggestions for future refinements, are offered.     

Caring for profit: Alienation and work stress in nursing assistants in Canada

Personal care work in proprietary nursing homes was contrasted with similar work in non-profit long-term care facilities. One quarter of Manitoba long-stay beds are operated by proprietary (profit-making) institutions. In both types of home, the nursing assistants were younger women with children; essential wage earners for their families. Wages were low, but nursing assistants said they worked because they liked taking care of elderly people. Nursing home residents have cognitive and mobility impairments and need help with activities of daily living. The proportion of cognitively-impaired residents is higher in profit-making homes, and probably contributed to job pressure and workload, which were taken as markers of potential alienation experienced by these workers.