Transparency in Europe: A Quantitative Study

In recent years, European pharmaceutical regulators have increasingly committed to heightening access to raw safety‐related data as part of a wave of transparency initiatives (e.g., providing public Internet‐mediated access to clinical trials data). Yet, the regulators—who are under significant pressure—have not yet benefited from a systematic review of this new policy. In seeking to inject much needed evidence, this article explores the effects of new transparency policies designed to promote meaningful communication of risks and benefits to patients. Results of a cross‐national European survey with respondents from Great Britain, the Netherlands, Spain, France, Germany, and Sweden (N = 5,648) shed light on how patients and the public are likely to react to the regulators’ new transparency policies. The findings demonstrate clear national variations in how European citizens are likely to react and emphasize the need to develop evidence‐based, reasoned transparency policies that integrate benefit‐risk communication. The authors conclude by providing six specific recommendations, informed by the study, that seek to improve the European transparency model both within the medical field and across health, safety, and environmental policy domains.     

中古佛经常用词组合关系考察

中古佛经中有些常用词与其他词语的组合关系既不同于上古，也不同于现代，而是体现出鲜明的时代特色。通过《大正新修大藏经》考察几个中古佛经常用词的组合关系，可以进一步揭示中古佛经在汉语词汇史方面的研究价值。     

汉萨商人在英国的活动及其对英国社会的影响

13世纪，德国汉萨同盟商人凭借优势进入英国，并逐步掌握了英国大部分对外贸易。当英国作为民族国家兴起并积极参与国际竞争之时，汉萨同盟却走向衰落，汉萨商人也在16世纪末退出了英国。汉萨商人对英国产生的影响不应忽视。他们向英国国王的贷款，缓解了国王财政拮据状况，抑制了国王与各阶层的矛盾，有助于社会稳定。他们从事英国羊毛和呢绒出口贸易，有助于促进英国羊毛和呢绒的生产，有助于英国与国际市场对接。在汉萨商人带动下，来到英国的德国资本和移民，还为16世纪英国采矿冶炼等“大工业”部门的兴起做出了贡献。     

东欧中亚国家阶级结构的变化

东欧中亚国家的社会面貌已经发生了全面而深刻的变化 ,阶级结构的变化便是这其中的重要内容。在推动阶级结构发生改变的诸多因素中 ,这些国家的历史传统、所确立的目标模式以及所推行的实际政策和具体操作方式发挥了突出的作用。今天东欧中亚国家阶级结构的面貌可以概括为 :两大基本板块 (即“上流社会”与“下层社会”的二元格局 )、四个主要阶级 (即官僚阶级、官僚资产阶级、新兴的资产阶级和小资产阶级以及雇佣劳动阶级 )。无论是就种类还是就属性而言 ,这些社会集团时下都带有鲜明的转型社会的特征。     

战后初期英国的欧洲一体化政策（1945-1951）

第二次世界大战使西欧各国饱受战争之苦。战后，要求欧洲统一、共同复兴的设想日益盛行。鉴于英国的总体实力在弱者中尚属强者，它最有可能成为欧洲统一的领导者；然而，最终法国却取而代之，英国错过了欧洲统一的“班车”。当时的英国是无心参与，还是另有考虑？本文试从1945—1951年英国的欧洲一体化政策来分析导致这种结果的关键因素。     

透视阿拉伯移民在欧洲社会的历史嬗变

阿拉伯裔穆斯林早在中世纪就已在欧洲存在,而今穆斯林族群已成为欧洲社会第二大族群。“9·11”事件使欧洲传统多元文化体系受到冲击,世人将目光聚焦伊斯兰和穆斯林。“3·11”、“7·7”、法国“头巾法案”、丹麦“亵渎伊斯兰教先知漫画”等一系列事件又使阿拉伯裔穆斯林移民问题成为国际关注热点。是同化吸纳还是割裂分离是欧洲各国政府当前移民政策中的最大困惑,是封闭自我还是融入当地社会也成为阿裔欧洲穆斯林当前的艰难抉择。妥善处理阿拉伯移民和欧洲主流社会的关系,已成为欧盟各成员国政府和穆斯林移民团体面临的重要问题。     

Agriculture,communities, and new social movements: East European ruralities in the process of restructuring

This paper examines the usefulness of the new social movements (NSMs) paradigm in the changing context of East European post-communist societies and their agricultural systems and rural communities. Starting with statements formulated in Western sociology in the context of Western democratic societies about NSMs as a protest against modernity, the paper analyses the role of such movements in the still modernizing Eastern European reality. The first part of the paper briefly examines some basic elements of the NSMs paradigm in European and American social science. The goal of this section is not only to identify the basic characteristics of NSMs, but also to identify the typical frames used by them. The second part of the paper focuses on the presence of NSMs in the communist era. Drawing on the idea of NSMs as indicators of a ‘post-materialist shift’ as well as of ‘anti-establishment’ and ‘pro-participatory democracy’, the paper examines the frames of democratic opposition in Eastern Europe before 1989. The final part of the paper considers several selected examples from Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic to explore the role of NSMs in the process of shaping new ruralities during the post-communist transformation.     

战后鲁尔问题与西欧早期一体化

鲁尔问题的解决对欧洲保持持久和平与繁荣有着重要的意义。在”舒曼计划”出台之前，法国曾提出过一系列解决鲁尔问题的方案，但却无一成功。鲁尔问题最终是通过欧洲煤钢共同体才得到较为完满的解决的，它对西欧早期一体化起到了巨大的推动作用。     

论当代资本主义发展的不平衡性

当代资本主义显现出发展的不平衡性:美国恪守单一私人占有制的传统模式和向富人倾斜的收入分配政策;欧洲推行"混合经济"模式和均等化的收入分配政策。其原因是:欧洲各国工人反对资本主义的斗争卓有成效,社会民主党长期执政,受社会主义影响较深;而美国工人阶级力量薄弱,斗争力度不强,右翼势力强大,受自由主义影响深重。     

Age at First Marriage and Age at Death in the Lincolnshire Fenland, 1252–1478

In five Lincolnshire villages between 1252 and 1478 there is evidence that men and women married fairly late before the Black Death, and that by 1348/9 the Western European marriage pattern of late and prudential marriage was well established. Households were usually nucleated; husbands were on average eight years older than their wives before 1348/9, and five years older after 1348/9. Marriages were short: according to the best calculation shorter before 1348/9 than after, most often terminated by the death of the first husband, and were unlikely to produce more than three children. Since there were more males than females amongst children and young adults, many men remained unmarried, but since the death rate of women was very high, men lived longer.