Imputation procedures for categorical data: their effects on the goodness-of-fit chi-square statistic

An imputation procedure is a procedure by which each missing value in a data set is replaced (imputed) by an observed value using a predetermined resampling procedure. The distribution of a statistic computed from a data set consisting of observed and imputed values, called a completed data set, is affecwd by the imputation procedure used. In a Monte Carlo experiment, three imputation procedures are compared with respect to the empirical behavior of the goodness-of- fit chi-square statistic computed from a completed data set. The results show that each imputation procedure affects the distribution of the goodness-of-fit chi-square statistic in 3. different manner. However, when the empirical behavior of the goodness-of-fit chi-square statistic is compared u, its appropriate asymptotic distribution, there are no substantial differences between these imputation procedures.     

A goodness of fit test for the multilevel proportional odds model

It is essential to test the goodness of fit of the model before making inferences based on it. Multilevel modeling of ordinal categorical responses is not as developed as for continuous responses. Assessing model adequacy in terms of the goodness of fit with ordinal categorical responses is still being developed and no satisfactory tests are available so far. As a consequence of that, this study concentrates on developing such a goodness of fit test for Multilevel Proportional Odds models and to study the properties of the test.     

Univaiuate anu multivariate categorical data analysis for block designs

Analysis for univariate and multivariate categorical data in block designs is given and illustrated through examples. The univariate analysis compares the treatments on the basis of their pooled frequency distributions (pooled over blocks). The test statistic used is called Q after Cochran (1950). The large sample null distribution of Q is a chi-square. Analysis of p-variate categorical data (kth variable having ck classes, K=1,...,p) can be done by treating it as a univariate categorical problem with [d] classes. Very often [d] is large in relation to the size of the experiment. This makes the expected frequencies for some of the cells very small, making the univariate method inapplicable. In these circumstances it may be reasonable to compare the treatments on the basis of marginal distributions up to the mth dimension, 1[d] , which is given in this paper. This method is also illustrated for missing observations     

Comparing mean ranks for repeated measures data

Rank tests are considered that compare t treatments in repeated measures designs. A statistic is given that contains as special cases several that have been proposed for this problem, including one that corresponds to the randomized block ANOVA statistic applied to the rank transformed data. Another statistic is proposed, having a null distribution holding under more general conditions, that is the rank transform of the Hotelling statistic for repeated measures. A statistic of this type is also given for data that are ordered categorical rather than fully rankedo Unlike the Friedman statistic, the statistics discussed in this article utilize a single ranking of the entire sample. Power calculations for an underlying normal distribution indicate that the rank transformed ANOVA test can be substantially more powerful than the Friedman test.     

基于事例推理方法在企业知识管理中的应用

知识管理的目的是形成企业的核心能力,给企业带来现实的利益。每个企业需要解决的问题是如何来管理知识并使其发挥应有的作用。知识管理决不只是技术问题,但知识管理的实现离不开相关技术的支持。本文介绍了基于事例推理方法,并说明了该方法是适于实现企业知识管理的一种技术,以及如何在企业知识管理中应用该方法。实践证明,基于事例推理方法是实现企业知识管理的利器之一。     

论诉讼中的证据推理

诉讼中的证据推理是建构司法裁决三段论小前提的推理,它是事实裁判者在查明案件事实的过程中,为发现或确认证据以及基于证据确认案件事实所进行的推理活动,它包括关于证据的推理与运用证据的推理两个层面,其本质特征在于逻辑上的可废止性.论证模式与叙事模式构成了证据推理的基本模式,这两种模式在证据推理过程中具有不同的特点和作用.     

博弈逻辑中归纳合理性问题探讨

归纳合理性问题最初是由休谟提出的.对这一问题,哲学家和逻辑学家提出了各种解决途径.在互动的人群的博弈中,由于总是存在某些公共知识,通过若干次博弈,总是有可能达到纳什均衡,因此归纳推理总是合理的.     

浅谈《战国策》的论理技巧与语言艺术

《战国策》为文铺排渲染,辩丽恣肆,陈说事理纵横捭阖,体情状物酣畅淋漓,堪称先秦史家之文中的出类拔萃之作。在论理技巧方面,《战国策》的文章大都善于分析形势,指陈利害,好设机巧,引人入彀,诱敌就范,进退有据,擒纵自如,具有极强的说服力和感染力。就语言而论,《战国策》之文大都放言无惮,绝少掩饰,文辞铺张扬厉,气势恢宏,且又精炼传神,形象生动,富于华彩,其语言艺术的精熟富丽,也大大超过了先秦其它几部历史散文。     

“Should I Trust the Bank or the Social Movement?” Motivated Reasoning and Debtors' Work to Accept Misinformation

How can people believe corporate and state misinformation even if a social movement organization in their community has been countering this misinformation for years? Why do people knowingly accept misinformation without even being upset about it? I address these questions by analyzing ethnographic data and interviews with 84 Chilean low‐income housing debtors, whom, like many Chileans, are victims of financial misinformation. While the state and banks had significant agency in inducing the unproblematic acceptance of misinformation, debtors also played an active role in the processes. First, debtors had to decide whom to trust, which was not only a cognitive problem about evidence but also a behavioral and practical problem involving risks. Second, debtors engaged in “motivated reasoning”—affect‐driven biased information processing—to dismiss the possibility of being misinformed, to downplay the significance of misinformation, and to direct blame away from misinforming institutions. The latter two practices reduced debtors' anger about being misinformed. The findings have implications for studies of social movement framing and counterinformation, for the cognitive psychology of misinformation, and for the sociology and social psychology of acquiescence.