North American surrogate reproductive mobilities incited by cross-border reproductive care

ABSTRACT

The transnational mobility of intended parents traveling abroad for reproductive technologies has been heavily accounted for and theorized. On the other hand, scholars have emphasized the immobility of surrogates in places like India, Nepal and Cambodia. In order to extend an examination of how reproductive travel informs mobility, this paper will turn a critical eye toward North American surrogates’ reproductive mobilities that are incited by their participation in cross-border reproductive care. Surrogates in the United States are strikingly different from the images presented of surrogates in India. In fact, when the North American surrogates cycle for international intended parents, in some aspects they become less and more mobile. This paper will focus on multiple types of reproductive mobilities that are involved in the global fertility industry when international intended parents travel to North America for assisted reproduction.     

A Womb That Is (Not Always) One's Own

The global diffusion of technology has spurred growth across a variety of sectors and increased linkages among actors in the global political economy. Advances in communication and travel technologies connect disparate regions around the world, while advances in medical technologies have increased the opportunities and options for both extending and creating life. Together these advances have led to the globalization of medical tourism and the rise of reproductive tourism. Reproductive tourism covers a variety of services, including surrogacy. As a result of such technological advances, not only is surrogacy increasing, it is increasingly transnational and commercialized. One of the top destinations for reproductive tourism is India, and Indian surrogates are becoming a hot commodity for western individuals looking to enlarge their families. Hailed by advocates as beneficial to all parties involved, critics are quick to point out the potential for exploitation and abuse in transnational commercial surrogacy arrangements. Adopting Spike Peterson's Reproductive, Productive and Virtual framing, this article explores the contradiction and the potential that results when the boundaries between economies blur and what has traditionally been considered a reproductive activity becomes another form of labor for sale.     

代孕有限合法化之探讨

从代孕技术的特点?代孕的现实需求?禁而不止的现状?代孕失范带来的问题等方面看,全面禁止代孕不可取?法律应在一定范围内允许和规制代孕行为,以满足现实需求,并且限制代孕技术的滥用,规范代孕技术的运用和发展?法律应当禁止商业性代孕;委托代孕的主体应当是不孕不育夫妻,并且妻子子宫不可孕育胎儿;应当充分考虑代孕者的生命健康以及优生优育;代孕所生子女应当与委托者具有血缘关系?     

代孕行为非法化的复合思路——以代孕行为探讨进程中的三步程序为中心

在代孕行为的学术讨论进程中,明显存在一种神学传统主义上的避之不及以及文献资料、社会媒体等方面情绪化的表征。通过去情绪化、契约化、伦理观化的三步程序,代孕行为的契约化现象可依托委托合同的模型进行分析,从而从法经济学、法理、女性主义、协商伦理理论的维度探寻代孕行为的价值基础。协商伦理理论足以确认亲子法中的子女利益最大化原则适用于代孕行为的分析。法技术上可行性的欠缺与社会少子化现象可以成为法律禁止代孕行为的论证基础。结合子女利益最大化原则可以得出,无论于法技术的安排,抑或我国国情下伦理与法理的共同考量,以法律形式确认代孕行为非法之理由充分。     

论完全代孕中子女身份归属的法律认定——从“子女最佳利益”原则出发

完全代孕是指由受术妻子提供受精卵,由代理孕母孕育分娩子女的过程。完全代孕所生子女身份归属的认定应以"子女最佳利益"为指导原则。学界关于代孕所生子女身份归属的认定标准有"分娩说""当事人意愿说""子女最佳利益说"和"血缘说"。四种学说各有利弊,都不足以作为代孕子女身份归属的法律标准。本文在综合各理论的基础上提出修正的意思表示说,即在国家公权力监管下,基于子女利益、社会公共利益,尊重当事人意思自由的同时对意思自治进行必要限制。     

代孕技术引起的伦理和法律困感

代孕技术是人类辅助生殖技术中最有争议的问题,它给许多不孕不育夫妇带来希望,但同时也进入了伦理和法律的困境。其主要集中在：代孕是否会导致传统家庭模式解体？代孕是否会导致商业性代孕合法化？委托代孕女性是否享有生育权？代孕是否侵犯了代孕女性的身体权？这些问题的有效解决将会为代孕的实施打开方便之门。     

Gauging the interests of birth mother and child: a qualitative study of Swedish social workers’ experiences of transnational gestational surrogacy

There are few studies on how social workers deal with cases regarding transnational surrogacy. Our study intends to contribute to filling this gap. In Sweden, surrogacy as an assisted reproductive technology method is not permitted. As a result, many prospective parents have turned abroad, mainly to India, for surrogacy. There are no laws regulating surrogacy in Sweden, and difficulties have arisen in establishing legal parenthood when the parents return with the child. This qualitative interview study with social workers found that legal uncertainty and ethical issues surrounded their handling. With no guidelines, the constructions of parenthood will continue to depend on individual social workers’ conflicting views on how to best meet the surrogate mother’s interest and the best interest of the child. Regulation is thus needed to better protect those involved and minimize the contingent aspects of legal handling by individual officials.     

Disability and sex work: developing affinities through decriminalization

This article argues that strong policy frameworks are required to support the health and well-being of sex workers, disabled people, and disabled sex workers. Through an examination of the context of sex work in Canada, we articulate the flaws of sex work criminalization and the persistent barriers that criminalization creates. Our analysis of the intersection of disabled sexuality and access to sexual services identifies how the sex industry can aid in the flourishing of the erotic lives of disabled people. The article culminates in a discussion of the benefits of sex work decriminalization for sex workers, disabled people, and disabled sex workers.     

人工辅助生育技术中的伦理争议及潜在风险分析——以代孕、精子卵子库为例

涉及人工辅助生育技术中的伦理问题,学术界争议不断.文章在理性地指出人工辅助生育技术中客观存在的伦理问题的同时,更看到了现实问题,即在我国,目前代孕和供体供精都因强劲的社会需求致使有泛滥的危险.故而,文章从伦理与社会、权利与义务的关系出发,指出了学术界关于支持代孕、精子卵子库讨论中的误区,提出了有限生育权,认为应严格并有限使用人工辅助生育技术、防范近亲婚配,谨慎开放亲属间代孕,严控供体供精.     

Two Dads: Gay Male Parenting and its Politicisation — A Cooperative Inquiry Action Research Study

Australian gay men have only recently become parents through surrogacy arrangements. They have had to overcome a discriminatory legal, social, political, cultural and financial environment. A cooperative inquiry action research group was formed, with seven two‐father families conceived via surrogacy, to explore their journey to parenthood and their consequent politicisation as gay fathers. This article reveals how that experience of the cooperative inquiry process strengthened their resolve to be intentionally ‘out’ in their communities to overcome discriminatory and conservative social attitudes. They embraced the political reality of their parenting and were stimulated to create improved support structures for themselves and future parents. This transformed the legal, social, political and cultural environment for their families.