Children's gender- and age-based categorization in similarity and induction tasks

The present studies examined children's and adults' preferences for gender- or age-based categorization using similarity and inductive inference tasks. Four-year-olds, 6-year-olds, and adults looked at pictures of people and decided which of two was more like a target (similarity condition) or which shared a novel age- or gender-related property with the target (inference condition). Age or gender-based matches were possible. The results are consistent with previous findings that gender-based classification decreases with age. However, they also demonstrate that children use gender more for judging similarity than for making inferences about novel properties. Distinct patterns emerge from the two tasks: 6-year-olds and adults in both conditions categorize more by age than gender; 4-year-olds categorize by gender more than age in the similarity task, but by age more in the induction task. Only adults differentiated by property in the inference condition. These findings suggest that the salience of gender categories cannot entirely be attributed to their inductive potential. Gender has a salience beyond what would be predicted by its power for directing novel generalizations.     

Diagnostic checks for discrete data regression models using posterior predictive simulations

Model checking with discrete data regressions can be difficult because the usual methods such as residual plots have complicated reference distributions that depend on the parameters in the model. Posterior predictive checks have been proposed as a Bayesian way to average the results of goodness-of-fit tests in the presence of uncertainty in estimation of the parameters. We try this approach using a variety of discrepancy variables for generalized linear models fitted to a historical data set on behavioural learning. We then discuss the general applicability of our findings in the context of a recent applied example on which we have worked. We find that the following discrepancy variables work well, in the sense of being easy to interpret and sensitive to important model failures: structured displays of the entire data set, general discrepancy variables based on plots of binned or smoothed residuals versus predictors and specific discrepancy variables created on the basis of the particular concerns arising in an application. Plots of binned residuals are especially easy to use because their predictive distributions under the model are sufficiently simple that model checks can often be made implicitly. The following discrepancy variables did not work well: scatterplots of latent residuals defined from an underlying continuous model and quantile–quantile plots of these residuals.     

Evaluation of multilevel decision trees

The evaluation of decision trees under uncertainty is difficult because of the required nested operations of maximizing and averaging. Pure maximizing (for deterministic decision trees) or pure averaging (for probability trees) are both relatively simple because the maximum of a maximum is a maximum, and the average of an average is an average. But when the two operators are mixed, no simplification is possible, and one must evaluate the maximization and averaging operations in a nested fashion, following the structure of the tree. Nested evaluation requires large sample sizes (for data collection) or long computation times (for simulations).     

Understanding predictive information criteria for Bayesian models

We review the Akaike, deviance, and Watanabe-Akaike information criteria from a Bayesian perspective, where the goal is to estimate expected out-of-sample-prediction error using a bias-corrected adjustment of within-sample error. We focus on the choices involved in setting up these measures, and we compare them in three simple examples, one theoretical and two applied. The contribution of this paper is to put all these information criteria into a Bayesian predictive context and to better understand, through small examples, how these methods can apply in practice.     

The Downside of Cyberspace

This article explores the actual and potential misuses of the World Wide Web in regard to access to “paper mills” and other information sources that make plagiarism relatively easy. The authors describe their experience accessing such paper mill products and present results of a quasi-experiment in which participants graded three papers: one an actual student submission and two purchased off the Internet. Findings suggest reason for concern about student misuse of the World Wide Web. The authors argue that different strategies for the design of class assignments must be considered by all educational programs to diminish enhanced opportunities for “cybercheating.”     

The trend toward multiple authorship in social work: A British and US comparison

This article provides a comparative analysis of publication trends in social work in the US and Great Britain. This exploratory effort seeks to identify possible explanations for the phenomenon of multiple authorship, the implications of multi-authored scholarship, and some of the potential ethical questions that may arise from such collaborations in regard to what constitutes legitimate contributions to a scholarly article or book. To the extent that common trends are emerging across international boundaries, the incentive for heightened communication and collaboration may be increased in an effort to identify implications and derive solutions to common problems.     

Social Work Students' Pre-placement Anxiety: An International Comparison

This paper compares the degree and nature of anxiety experienced by American and Israeli social work students as they anticipate beginning field placement. Despite having greater prior exposure to social work through relevant coursework and experience, American students were significantly more anxious than Israeli ones. Overall, Americans reported a slightly higher sense of preparedness, but this difference was not statistically significant. While there were some shared worries, notably regarding the quantity and quality of field instruction, and their capacity to meet both field and academic obligations, specific concerns regarding field agencies, clients, and social work education differed between the groups, likely reflecting the distinct social, cultural, historical and educational contexts. Implications for social work education and future research are discussed.     

The credibility of nonprofit boards: a view from the 1990s and beyond

The wrongdoings of nonprofit organizations have become grist for the media mill. The authors explore five of the more recently publicized cases of nonprofits gone wrong: the United Way of America, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, Foundation for New Era Philanthropy, Jewish Community Center of Greater Washington, and Upsala College, and their significance in regard to the role and functioning of the board. Discussion focuses on the implications of these cases in regard to nonprofits' credibility and strategic options for enhancing accountability. Unless governing boards address some of their deficiencies, tighter government regulations, increased donor skepticism, and greater demands and expectations upon them will result.