The Regulation of Infant Negative Emotions: The Role of Maternal Sensitivity and Infant‐Directed Speech Prosody

This study explored the role of maternal sensitivity and infant‐directed speech (IDS) prosody in infants’ expression and regulation of negative emotion. Seventy mothers and their 3‐month‐old infants were observed during the Still‐Face Paradigm (SFP). Maternal sensitivity and IDS prosody were assessed at baseline and infant negative affect in the baseline, still‐face, and reunion episodes. Results showed that prototypical IDS prosody characterized by wider fundamental frequency (F0) variability was related to decreases in infant's negative affect, but only if accompanied by maternal sensitivity. Infants of sensitive mothers who spoke with more prototypical IDS prosody showed better abilities to regulate negative affect during the SFP. When prototypical IDS prosody was accompanied by low maternal sensitivity, infants showed lower regulation of negative emotions. In conclusion, infant negative affect regulation in a dyadic setting is facilitated by an optimal combination of both more prototypical maternal IDS prosody and maternal sensitive responsiveness. Implications for the study of mother–infant interaction are discussed.     

Prenatal Reflective Functioning and Accumulated Risk as Predictors of Maternal Interactive Behavior During Free Play,the Still‐Face Paradigm,and Two Teaching Tasks

This study examined whether prenatal reflective functioning (RF) was related to mothers’ interactive style across contexts with their 6‐month‐old infants (M age = 6.02 months, SD = 0.41, 54% boys), and to what extent quality of prenatal RF could account for the influence of accumulated risk on maternal interactive behavior. Accumulated risk was defined as the sum‐score of a selection of risk factors that have been associated with suboptimal infant development. Mother–infant dyads (N = 133) were observed during free play, two teaching tasks, and the Still‐Face Paradigm (SFP). Better prenatal RF was associated with more positive maternal behavior in all settings and less negative behavior during teaching and SFP reengagement. Accumulated risk and prenatal RF predicted shared variance in maternal interactive behavior (with unique predictive effects observed only for RF on sensitivity during teaching and SFP play, and for accumulated risk on sensitivity and positive engagement during SFP play, and internalizing‐helplessness during SFP reengagement). Accumulated risk had an indirect effect on maternal sensitivity during teaching and SFP play through prenatal RF. These findings suggest not only that RF may be targeted prenatally to improve mother–infant interactions, but also that enhancing RF skills may ameliorate some of the negative consequences from more stable perinatal risk factors that influence parent–child interactions.     

Falling Through The Cracks: Gaps In Child Support Among Welfare Recipients

This article examines gaps in child support among welfare recipients in Wisconsin. Documented is the extent to which breakdowns at various stages—including paternity establishment, support orders, and payments—contribute to the low rate of child support receipt. Children were tracked over a 2‐year period to assess their progress through the child support system over time. Few welfare recipients are able to successfully negotiate the child support system, and mothers frequently achieve different degrees of success with different children. The characteristics of children who drop out prior to obtaining a support order suggest that, with an order in place, they would be as likely to receive support as are those children who already have orders.     

Wait Until Your Mother Gets Home! Mothers' and Fathers' Discipline Strategies

From a traditional viewpoint, fathers are seen as the main disciplinarian in the family. However, recent studies suggest that these traditional family role patterns may have changed. In this study, we observed discipline strategies of mothers and fathers toward their sons and daughters. Participants included 242 families with two children (1 and 3 years of age). Findings revealed that parental discipline varied by the age of the children, but that mothers disciplined their children more often than fathers. Fathers, conversely, showed more laxness in response to child non‐compliance. Gender of the children was only related to physical interference, with mothers using more physical interference with boys than fathers, irrespective of birth order. Taken together, these findings highlight the importance of parent gender for parent–child interactions in early childhood, but also suggest that child age should be taken into account as important explanatory factors.     

The effect of the still‐face paradigm on infant behavior: A cross‐cultural comparison between mothers and fathers

Most still‐face paradigm (SFP) studies have been done in Western families with infant–mother dyads. The present study investigated the SFP pattern in 123 Dutch and 63 Chinese 4‐month‐old infants with mothers and fathers. The classic SFP effect was found for positive affect and gaze in both countries. For negative affect, Chinese infants showed a different SFP pattern than Dutch infants. With fathers, infants displayed a less pronounced SFP pattern for positive affect and an increase from the still face to the reunion for negative affect. Only a minority of infants showed the expected SFP pattern across episodes. Our findings support that infant emotion expression is influenced by parent gender and cultural context. An interesting avenue for further study is the exploration of the origins of within‐ and between‐gender and culture differences in affective communication between parents and infants.     

Does Parenthood Change Implicit Gender‐Role Stereotypes and Behaviors?

This study examined whether parenthood changes gender‐role behavior and implicit gender‐role stereotypes as assessed with an Implicit Association Test in Dutch parents. In a cross‐sectional sample, parents were found to have more traditional gender‐role stereotypes than nonparents with a wish to have a child and nonparents without the wish to have a child. This suggests that gender‐role stereotypes increase after the transition into parenthood. In a longitudinal sample, parents were followed for 4 years after the first birthday of their youngest child. The authors found that implicit gender‐role stereotypes and behavior became increasingly traditional over time in most parents, except for the following two groups: (a) Fathers with highly traditional gender‐role stereotypes did not show change over time and (b) older, highly educated mothers who worked relatively many hours outside the home and who had an egalitarian task division at home, remained egalitarian in their gender‐role stereotypes over time.     

Participation in the School Breakfast Program: new evidence from the ECLS-K

This article examines determinants of participation in the federal School Breakfast Program among third-grade public school students. Data come from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study—Kindergarten Cohort. Results suggest that participation is much less common in the School Breakfast Program than in the National School Lunch Program, even among children whose schools offer both programs. Economic vulnerability, time constraints, and local norms are found to be linked to participation; program and logistical aspects, such as whether schools serve breakfast in the classroom and the length of time available for breakfast, are predictive. Results suggest that participation in the School Breakfast Program could be increased by adjusting program characteristics and by enhancing outreach efforts.     

The effects of crowding on the behavior and perception of 10-year-old boys

The present study integrated observational and self-report methods to investigate the effects of low and high spatial density on 10-year-old boys in an experimental setting. The differential effects of density on acquaintances versus strangers and on close versus far personal-space boys were analyzed. From a factor analysis of variables that were either rated during a free-play session or were scored responses from a postexperimental interview, five factors emerged: (1)Discomfort and Dislike of Room; (2)Active Play, (3)Avoidance, (4)Positive Group Interactions, and (5)Anger and Aggression.This research was funded by Grant MH 25 522-01 from the National Institute of Mental Health, Applied Research Branch. The authors wish to thank Irwin Altman and Charles Wenar for their valuable comments, Tom Wickens for his statistical assistance, Jeanne Tschann for her computer assistance, and Denise Kennelly, Dorothy Ruby, Sherry Drobner, Anne Grenn, Greg Gerritsen, David Bornstein, Laurie Kiguchi, Werner Feible, Mary Miller, Debra Kimes, and Nancy Kitchens for their assistance. We also thank the principals and teachers at Bay View Elementary School, Gault Elementary School, Westlake Elementary School, and Branciforte Elementary School for their cooperation with us on this study.     

Robert Bostrom's Contribution to Listening in Organizational Contexts

Robert Bostrom has not only left a listening legacy, but he was also a pioneer in the larger discipline of communication. Bostrom was one of the first scholars to focus on the dynamics of interpersonal contexts, thereby directly contributing to the transition of our field from “speech” to “communication.” Early on he recognized the importance of relational issues and reciprocity, concepts that would later become particularly important to listening researchers and practitioners. In this early work, when the discipline was concerned almost exclusively with the creation and sending of messages, he emphasized the importance of “listener involvement” in the communication process and, from the beginning, demonstrated a commitment to reveal the relevance of communication in everyday contexts (Andersch, Staats, &; Bostrom, 1969 Andersch, E., Staats, L. and Bostrom, R. 1969. Communication for everyday use, New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, &; Winston.  [Google Scholar]).     

Being “easy”: Women’s desire to accept help in later life

ABSTRACT

This article examines the concept of being “easy” as a quality that female caregivers aspire to as they envision their potential care in later life. It draws on data from a qualitative study exploring the significance of caregiving to adult daughters’ perspectives and plans for their own aging. Caregivers’ experiences differ based upon their perception of how easy or difficult it was to care for their loved one. The former exemplifies a positive way to approach aging and the receiving of care. Being easy describes an attitude that these caregivers desired for their own later life.