LEAGUE‐LEVEL ATTENDANCE AND OUTCOME UNCERTAINTY IN U.S. PRO SPORTS LEAGUES

We extend the breakpoint literature regarding annual league‐level attendance and the impact of outcome uncertainty to the National Basketball Association, National Football League, and National Hockey League. As our measures are different than past work on baseball, we also apply our model to the American and National Leagues. Attendance series for each league under consideration are not stationary overall, but are stationary with break points. No form of outcome uncertainty (game, play‐off, or across seasons) matters for attendance in hockey or baseball regardless of which game uncertainty variable is used. Under the measure of game uncertainty that recommends itself for football, only play‐off uncertainty matters for attendance. Whether outcome uncertainty matters for basketball depends on the measure of game uncertainty. Situational similarities in the break points across leagues suggest general areas for future research. (JEL L83, C22)     

Men, Situations, and Structure: An Essay

Plusieurs des positions contradictoires que lon retrouve dans le champ de lanthropologie économique peuvent être conçues comme étant des cas particuliers de questions théoriques plus générates. Dans ses différentes manifestations, le niveau micro ou macroscopique danalyse revêt une importance centrale. Cet article cherche à explorer, à un niveau général, les rapports qui existent entre lanalyse structurelle (le niveau macroscopique) et lacteur (le niveau micro). En utilisant une approche phénoménologique qui situe lindividu dans son vécu quotidien, lessai considère les situations sociales comme étant des connexions dynamiques entre les deux niveaux. En cherchant à determiner lintersection des dimensions spatiales et temporelles, lanalyse tente de dépasser les difficultés associées soit à la réification de la structure ou soit encore aux perspectives qui considèrent la société comme étant des simples agrégats dintérêts ou de relations interpersonnelles.
Many of the difficulties and conflicting positions in economic anthropology may be viewed as specific instances of more general theoretical issues. Among these the macro-micro problem in various forms appears of central importance. This article attempts, at a general level, to explore the relation of macro, or structural analysis, to the actor or micro level. In adopting a phenomenological orientation toward the person in everyday life, the article views social situations as the dynamic connection between the two levels. In pursuing the intersection of spatial and temporal dimensions, the analysis seeks to move beyond difficulties associated with either the reification of structure or the view of societies as being merely aggregates of interests and/or interpersonal negotiation.     

A DIFFICULTY WITH MONETARIST MODELS OF HYPERINFLATION

The Cagan, Barro, and Allais analyses of hyperinflation have been shown to be questionable. Their impressive empirical results are a direct result of the method used to solve their models. Their solution does not depend on the input forcing function (the rate of change of the money stock) of their differential equation systems but expresses one dependent variable, real money balances, as a function of another dependent variable, the rate of change of prices. As a result, price changes which are unrelated to changes in the money stock acting through the dynamic structure of the model will incorrectly yield a good fit of the data.     

SELF-CONCEPT AND ATTITUDES: A COMPARISON OF CANADIAN INDIAN AND NON-INDIAN STUDENTS*

La recherche antérieure sur les étudiants indiens canadiens suggère la formation d'images de soi et d'attitudes négatives en conséquence de leur position dans la société et de la discrimination rencontrée dans la société et dans l'école. La plus grande partie de cette recherche a cependent négligé de comparer les attitudes de ces étudiants avec celles des étudiants non-indiens qui, on présume, n'ont pas à faire face aux mêmes pressions et situations sociales. La présente étude a été construite de façon à pouvoir examiner les états affectifs des étudiants indiens et non-indiens en contrôlant un nombre de variables importantes. Les résultats ne confirme pas l'affirmation faite par la recherche antérieure. Previous research on Canadian Indian students suggests that they develop negative self-concepts and attitudes as a result of their position in society and the discrimination they face in society and school. However, most of this research has failed to compare the attitudes of these students with the attitudes of non-Indian students who, presumably, have not faced the same social pressures and situations. The present study was designed to examine the affective states of both Indian and non-Indian students when a number of important variables were controlled. The findings do not support the contention that Indian students have negative self-concepts and attitudes.     

THE STATE STREET MILE: AGE AND GENDER DIFFERENCES IN COMPETITION AVERSION IN THE FIELD

Gender differences in “competitiveness,” previously documented in laboratory experiments, are hypothesized to play a role in a wide array of economic outcomes. This paper provides evidence of competition aversion in a natural setting somewhere between the simplicity of a laboratory experiment and the full complexity and ambiguity of a labor market. The “State Street Mile” race offers both male and female participants a choice between two different levels of competition. Large, systematic age and gender differences are observed in the relationship between true ability and the decision to enter the more competitive race. Overall, qualified women and older runners are far less likely than qualified young men to enter a competitive race with prizes. However, the fastest young women unanimously enter the competitive race. Therefore, while we confirm age and gender differences in competitiveness in our field setting, the economic consequences to capable young women are rather small. (JEL J1, J7, M5)     

OPTIMAL COMPETITIVE BALANCE IN A SEASON TICKET LEAGUE

Theory predicts that a planner maximizing the sum of fan and owner surpluses from a league dominated by season ticket sales may prefer more, less, or the same level of competitive balance produced by a league of profit‐maximizing owners. The optimal level of balance depends on the relationship between marginal impacts of talent rearrangements in larger‐revenue and smaller‐revenue markets. Ultimately, then, judging whether an increase in balance enhances welfare rests on careful and thorough empirical investigation. Our reading of the literature and the policy debate shows that this careful work remains to be done. (JEL D6, L83)     

STRUCTURAL CHANGE, COMPETITIVE BALANCE, AND THE REST OF THE MAJOR LEAGUES

Analyzing North American major sports leagues other than baseball, we find no break points in competitive balance time series corresponding to rule changes, the draft, free agency, salary caps, or labor disputes except for the 1998 basketball lockout. Some expansion and team relocation correspond with break points. Mergers that do correspond with break points all enhance competitive balance. But not all expansions, moves, and mergers correspond with break points. Remaining explanatory challenges include a general negative trend in competitive balance in basketball and the occurrence of a break point in football, 1976–1977. ( JEL C32, L83)     

DEREGULATING RELIGION: THE ECONOMICS OF CHURCH AND STATE

Traditional religious research fails to recognize religion as a market phenomenon. It especially overlooks supply-side factors that shape the incentives and opportunities of religious firms, emphasizing instead demand-side shifts in the perceptions, tastes, and needs of consumers. This paper reviews the effects of government actions that alter religious supply. Our examples demonstrate that simple deregulation lies at the root of major religious trends and that the vitality of a religious market depends critically upon its competitiveness.