Organizational Symbolism as a Social Construction: A Perspective from the Sociology of Knowledge

This article describes organizational symbolismfrom a sociology of knowledge perspective and considersboth the theoretical and extra-theoretical bases of thesymbolic approach. It illustrates the distinctive principles of the symbolic approach withrespect to other methods used in the study oforganizations, the concepts on which it is based, andthe organizational issues on which it has shedsignificant light. Symbolist studies of organizations haverefocused scholarly attention on the multidisciplinaryunderstanding of the logos, ethos, and pathos oforganizational life. They have done so by stressing the production of knowledge tout court, rather thanconcerning themselves with the applicability of theorganizational knowledge acquired by this approach formanagerial purposes. Organizational symbolism is described in the article as a fluctuatingand emerging social construction whose growth and spreadhas been fostered by support within academia.     

Reflexivity

Just as the concept paradigmenergized the human sciences in spite of its manydefinitions and uses, so now does the conceptreflexive seem to be of increasingsalience, again with many definitions and uses. It is argued thatreflexivity, as a fundamental human quality underliesvarious attempts to understand and intervene in humanrelationships. By juxtaposing paradigms, reflexivity, and therapeutic progression it is possible toset out several types of reflexivity, some relativelyself-contained and others at the edge of our possibleknowledges.     

A Case Against Making the Control of Clients a Negotiable Contingency for Interdisciplinary Teams

Most discussions of interdisciplinary teamsassume that cross-functional teams are desirable.Critical analyses of the fundamental contradictionsinherent in bringing together professionals with diverse ideologies, interests, contingencies, andtechnologies are rare. Even less common are discussionsof the negative consequences of these contradictions forclients. Based on observations in an institution for youth-in-trouble, this paper argues thatthe control of clients is one key process underlyingconflicts and dilemmas in interdisciplinary teams; itbuilds a case against making the control of clients a negotiable contingency for teams. Given theuniversal nature of control mechanisms, those mostdirectly responsible for control have a superiorbargaining position because, in order to be effective,their control routines must be consistent. Althoughthese workers may yield to other treatment ideologiesregarding particular clients, the overall outcome is theenhancement of their interests. Moreover, the outcome of negotiations may generate confusionfor clients because of inconsistencies in theapplication of control mechanisms. Three strategies tominimize interprofessional negotiations regarding the control of clients are discussed: theformulation of clear boundaries between thoseresponsible for control and those who are not; theestablishment of policies to address conflicts betweencontrol and competing treatments; and, client determinationof differential levels of interprofessional coordinationand cooperation.     

Work ties beget community? Assessing interactions among transnational private governance organizations in sustainable agriculture

Transnational private governance organizations (TPGOs) set standards for various sustainability issues and industries. TPGOs individually address only facets of larger problems such as land conversion, and competition among TPGOs also affects TPGO governance, meaning coordination across their activities can be required. Studies have shown that ties between TPGOs and other organizations facilitate information sharing, coordination and socialization. A systematic analysis of the structure of such ties, however, is lacking. Using the employment ties of staff and governors, we analyse the inter‐organizational communities of TPGOs that focus on agriculture. Our findings cast doubt on the existence of a coherent community of sustainable agricultural TPGOs: very few communities involve multiple TPGOs. While TPGOs with a similar product focus may form links with similar organizations, there are few direct and indirect ties among TPGOs. Researchers should therefore be cautious about assuming that a TPGO policy community crossing organizational and policy divides currently exists.     

Gender Relations and Identity at Work: A Case Study of Masculinities and Femininities in an Advertising Agency

The paper explores gender relations and genderidentity, based upon an ethnography of a Swedishadvertising agency. The organization is of specialinterest as it has a strong gender division of labor,where men hold all senior posts, at the same time ascreative advertising work seems to have much moresimilarity with what gender studies describe as"femininity" rather than with forms ofmasculinity. The paper discusses how gender is constructedin an organizational context. Emphasis on workplacesexuality is related to identity work of men in responseto the highly ambiguous and contested context of advertising work. Tendencies toward thefemininization of the work and clientrelationships put some strain on (gender) identity formen, triggering a structuring of gender relations andinteraction at the workplace to restore feelings ofmasculinity. The paper problematizes ideas ofmasculinities and femininities and argues for arethinking of their roles in nonbureaucraticorganizations. Also assumptions about a close connection between domination ofmasculinity and of males are criticallydiscussed.     

From Altruism to Action: Primary Task and the Not-for-Profit Organization

This paper examines the concept of primary task,as it has been used in action research and consultancyat The Tavistock Institute and elsewhere. It applies theconcept to the not-for-profit organization and argues that primary task should not bethought of opportunistically; it relates to themission of the organization. The threesector model of public, private and voluntaryorganizations is linked to basic assumptions, as described by Bion andapplied to societal institutions. The voluntary sectoris considered to have a valency for basic assumptionpairing organizational behavior. A case study of a voluntary organization demonstrates the waydifferent stakeholders claim psychological ownership ofthe enterprise. The paper concludes that the concept ofprimary task remains important, offering a stable reference point for working with organizations,where the boundary between sectors is increasinglyproblematic, threatening to overwhelm their originalpurpose.     

Sailing together from different shores: labour markets and inequality on board merchant ships

In this study, we analyse the consequences of the conditions of the labour‐market contracts for working on board merchant ships. More specifically, we examine how seafarers hired on different contracts work together. Seafarers’ conditions of work differ considerably: some, mainly workers in the West, have permanent contracts with a shipping company, are paid a relatively high monthly wage and can go ashore every second month, whereas others performing the same tasks may have to stay at sea for more than six months at a time, and work for less money on temporary contracts. Drawing on the economic sociology of markets and institutional theory, in this article we present the institutional conditions of globalized labour markets for seafarers and analyse unique data derived from observations and interviews on board merchant ships. We argue that the notion of market is a key explanatory factor for how the work is conducted on board. Theoretically, our elaboration on markets allows us to conceptualize and address global and transnational markets.     

Making knowledge legitimate: transnational advocacy networks' campaigns against tobacco,infant formula and pharmaceuticals

In this article, we examine three different cases in which health activists lobbied the World Health Organization and its member states to regulate the marketing practices of multinational companies. The campaign against tobacco manufacturers resulted in a binding treaty; the campaign against manufacturers of infant formula resulted in a non‐binding code of conduct; and the campaign against pharmaceutical manufacturers failed. We show that existing arguments regarding the success of global social movements and transnational advocacy networks fail to explain the divergent outcomes in these three cases. Instead, we argue that the effectiveness of global advocacy in these cases depended on the level of perceived legitimacy of the knowledge supporting the advocates' claims and on the prestige of the experts participating in the campaigns.     

Abjection and Organization: Men, Violence, and Management

This paper explores case material to show theextent to which non-organizational experiences ofviolence can shape subsequent behavior withinorganizations. These connections are not commonlyconsidered either in the study of organizational behavioror of managerial practice, because behaviors from otherarenas, adaptations, and responses, can be reproducedmany years away from the source of anxiety. These behaviors are widespread, patterned, cyclical,and carry an inevitability about them that cannot bemodified simply by changing behavior alone. The paperconcentrates on examples where the extent ofpathological behavior is easilyseen, but the processes whichsurface are common mechanisms of ordinary human behaviorand more attenuated experiences of violence withinorganizations operate similarly. These processes are discussed through the work of objectrelations theorists, Julia Kristeva, and recenttheorists of masculinity, arguing that bureaucraciesseek to deny the emotional dimension of their behaviorand decision-making which creates emotion as an abject phenomenon,denied but present, ever potentially resurgent, neveraddressed as reality. Men are caught up in this web ofsocietal and organizational denial because of their traditional dominance in formalorganizations and the historical association ofmasculinity and rationality, compounded by the dynamicsof male psychology. However traditional symbolicassociations between men and physical violence introduce aproblematic contradiction, and societal, cultural, andorganizational arrangements tend to support andfacilitate the psychodynamics of denial which deals with this contradiction by producing narcissisticand addictive responses. This is illustrated by adiscussion of film, novel, and biographical data. Thepaper finally argues that men in organizations need to come to terms with the unacceptable inthemselves and their experience in order to break thiscycle of reproduction of dysfunctionalbehavior.