Social dimensions of gradients in urban ecosystems

Urban ecosystems are complex mosaics in which the biophysical characteristics are transformed over time by a concentrated, diverse set of human activities. Understanding their complexity requires the continuing development of interdisciplinary approaches. The use of gradient approaches has pointed towards the need to examine in greater detail the roles of human influences. In this paper, I propose the addition of three social dimensions to characteristics defining urban gradients: landuse, land management effort, and historical context. These dimensions correspond with major types of social activities that modify the physical environment. They are intended to augment research by explicitly elaborating on the social factors contributing to the variation along the complex, indirect gradients that typify urban areas.The diversity of urban landuses has numerous influences, obvious and subtle, on the complex urban land gradients. Incorporating new information on historical and spatial characteristics of management practices supports more direct fine-scale analyses of the impact of human activities on the environment. This path of inquiry also requires engaging in more detailed research on historical dimensions of urban development in conjunction with biophysical analyses. Examples from Columbia, South Carolina, illustrate the ways that social and historical processes contribute to urban ecology.