北魏孝文帝以后北朝的清浊官、流外官和吏

孝文帝迁都洛阳以后，在制度上严格了清、浊官的区分。北魏的清、浊之别与流内、流外官之别相对应。北魏与北齐、隋朝流外官分等方式基本相似，区别只在于魏分七等，北齐和隋分九等；北周则将流外九等称为九秩，而且分等方式与魏、齐都不同。王朝对于流内、流外官采取不同的对待政策，但是，这种分别有时候不明显，流外官有时享有流内七、八品官的待遇。北朝流外官的构成情况与阶级来源现在只能进行片面的推断。北魏的流内、流外官之分实际就是官与吏之分。

Qing Zhuo officials out of Liu and Li of the Northern Dynasties since XiaoWen Emperor

Xiaowen Emperor strictly distinguished Qing officials and Zhuo officials in system after his moving the capital to Luoyang. The difference between Qing officials and Zhuo officials was in correspence to that between officials within Liu and those out of Liu. The way to classify officials out of Liu in the Northern Wei ,Qi and Sui was basically alike, while the difference lied in the fact that the Northern Wei degraded 7 ,but the Northern Qi and Sui degraded 9. The Northern Zhou named the 9 degrades of officials out of Liu 9 Zhi, and adopted a style of classification different from that of the Northern Wei and Qi. The government treated the officials within Liu and out of Liu differently, but the difference was not clear sometimes, with officials out of Liu enjoying the same treatment of the 7th and 8th degree of officials within Liu. Now we can only infer one-sidedly the composition and class origin of officials out of Liu. The difference between officials within Liu and out of Liu was in correspondence to that between officers and Li in fact.