From ＂tianxia＂ （all under heaven） to ＂the world＂： changes in late Qing intellectuals＇ conceptions of human society

传统的“天下”一词本具广狭二义，分别对应着今日意义的“世界”和“中国”。过去的流行说法是，近代中国有一个将“天下”缩变为“国家”的进程。如果侧重昔人思考的对象，恐怕更多是一个从“天下”转变为“世界”的进程。康有为创造性地把公羊“三世”说由历时性变为共时性，使“天下”平顺地向“世界”过渡。但中国却被西方主导的“世界”体系外在化，中国士人渴望加入“世界”，努力为中国在世界确立一个更好的位置，这是一个充满了彷徨的探索进程。

From tianxia (all under heaven) to the world:changes in late Qing intellectuals' conceptions of human society

The concept of tianxia （all under heaven） had both a broad and a narrow meaning in traditional China, corresponding respectively to ＂the world＂ and ＂China.＂ It was generally believed that China＇s recent history saw a process in which tianxia contracted into a ＂state.＂ However, if we put the emphasis on what the Chinese literati had in mind, the process was more of a transformation from tianxia to ＂the world.＂ Kang Youwei creatively transformed Gongyang＇s idea of the ＂Three Worlds＂ from a diachronic to a synchronic concept, facilitating a smooth transformation from tianxia to ＂the world.＂ However, China was excluded fi-om the Western-dominated ＂world＂ system. The Chinese literati＇s yearning to become a part of＂the world,＂ and their endeavor to earn China a better position in the world, involved a hesitant process of exploration.