A Double Disadvantage? Immigration, Gender, and Employment Status in Israel

This article examines gender differences in employment status among immigrants in Israel, and how these differences vary across origin groups. Analysis of the 1995 population census indicates that, all else being equal, immigrant women exert a negative effect on activity in the annual labor force. As time elapses, the probability of immigrant women being employed improves but remains considerably lower than that of both immigrant and native-born men. However, after a few years in the country, immigrant women do close the gap with native-born women. For employment status in the last week, being an immigrant woman has a positive effect on full-time employment. A detailed analysis reveals substantial stratification by country of birth. Thus, the patterns of employment status for immigrant groups can reflect different levels (single, double, and triple) of disadvantage or advantage for women. I attach this stratification to cultural background and social values of country of birth as well as to economic and religious considerations, not fully indexed by the census data.     

Investigating the Dynamics of Migration and Health in Australia: A Longitudinal Study

There have been few longitudinal studies investigating the immigrant health and changes in their health with longer residency in the host country. Additionally, the pathways and mechanisms by which transition of health over time occurs are poorly understood, limiting the ability to implement policies that will result in improved health for all, including immigrants. We assessed differences in health outcomes among foreign-born people from English speaking countries and non-English speaking countries relative to native-born Australians over a 10-year period using a large representative longitudinal dataset. We also explored English language proficiency, socio-economic factors and health behaviour factors as possible mechanisms through which health outcomes change over time post-migration. Conventional multilevel mixed and hybrid regression models were used to evaluate health outcomes in 9558 native-born and 3067 foreign-born people from the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia survey. There were clear differences in physical health, mental health and self-assessed health between foreign-born subgroups in comparison with native-born Australians. Foreign-born people from English speaking countries typically had a health advantage relative to native-born people, and foreign-born people from non-English speaking countries had a health disadvantage with respect to native-born people for all health outcomes. There was no evidence that these differences changed by duration of residence except for self-assessed health amongst foreign-born people from non-English speaking countries when duration of residence exceeded 20 years. English language proficiency mediated the relationship between duration of residence and health for foreign-born people from non-English speaking countries.     

Use It or Save It? Migration Background and Parental Leave Uptake in Sweden

Sweden is a welfare state with a family policy that strongly emphasizes equality without distinction by place of birth or gender. In this study, we investigate the differences in uptake of parental leave between native and immigrant mothers, and the connection to labour-market attachment. Sweden represents a unique case study, not only because of the strong effort to combine work and family for all women and men, the high level of fertility and the large presence of immigrants in the country; it also enables a detailed and sophisticated analysis based on the high-quality data derived from its population registers. We find that immigrant mothers use more parental leave benefit the first year after their child’s birth, but then fewer in the second year compared with native mothers. The differences diminish when labour-market activity is controlled for. Additionally, after a time in Sweden, immigrant mothers use leave more similarly to how native mothers do.     

Factors Associated with Return Migration of First-Generation Immigrants in Belgium (2001–2011)

Belgium is a country with a long and diverse history of migration. Given the diverse context of immigration to Belgium, reasons for return migration will most likely vary as well. With this study, we want to quantify the return migration of Belgium’s immigrants and assess whether socio-economic, sociodemographic and health factors are related to return migration. Individually linked census and register data comprising the total Belgian first-generation immigrant population aged 25+ were used. Age-standardized emigration rates (ASER) by migrant origin and gender were calculated for the period 2001–2011. Additionally, relative return migration differences were calculated by country of origin and gender, adjusted for age group, length of stay, household composition, socio-economic indicators (education, home ownership and employment status) and self-rated health in 2001. Return migration was most common among immigrants from Spanish descent and from the neighbouring countries and higher among men than among women. Return migration was highly selective in terms of older age, lower length of stay in Belgium, not living with a partner or children, being high-educated, unemployed and in good health. Key issues for future research include examining the reasons for return migration, identifying the country of destination and accounting for household characteristics.     

Partner Choice in Sweden Following a Failed Intermarriage

This paper is based on the assumption that divorced and separated individuals bring with them the experience of a failed union which may shape their future choices on the marriage market. It aims to contribute to our knowledge of intermarriage, and social interaction in Sweden in general, by comparing the repartnering choices of immigrants and natives in Sweden who had made what is still considered an atypical choice of entering a native-immigrant union with the partner choices of natives and immigrants whose previous union was endogamous. The empirical analysis in this paper is based on the Swedish register data from the STAR data collection (Sweden over Time: Activities and Relations) and covers the period 1990–2007. All the analyses in the paper include individuals aged 20–55 at the time of union dissolution. The multivariate analysis is based on discrete-time multinomial logistic regression. The results show that for all four groups defined by sex and nativity (native men, native women, immigrant men, and immigrant women), there is a positive association between the previous experience of intermarriage and the likelihood of initiating another intermarriage after union dissolution. Another important finding is that the magnitude of this positive association increases with the degree of social distance between the groups involved in the union. Gender differences are modest among natives and somewhat more pronounced among immigrants.     

Gender in language and life: A Dutch American example

This case study of language shift among turn-of-the-century Dutch Protestant immigrants highlights how language operates to create and reinforce social systems of meaning. The author describes how gender variations in language acquisition relate to social and economic positions of the migrants and their age at arrival. At the individual, familial, and ethnic group level, language acquisition was genedered. Men and women had different reasons for learning or preserving their language, with women occupying the extremes of both innovation and retention. Using socioloinguists' interviews, immigrant letters, literary works, and a variety of other sources, the author argues that the relative absence of gender and class distinctions in English grammar reinforced a particular vision of America that also included freedom from these elements. She is the coeditor with Rudolph Vecoli of A Century of European Migrations (1991), and author of a forthcoming book on Dutch immigrant women.     

Factors Associated with Return Migration of First-Generation Immigrants in Belgium (2001–2011)

Belgium is a country with a long and diverse history of migration. Given the diverse context of immigration to Belgium, reasons for return migration will most likely vary as well. With this study, we want to quantify the return migration of Belgium’s immigrants and assess whether socio-economic, sociodemographic and health factors are related to return migration. Individually linked census and register data comprising the total Belgian first-generation immigrant population aged 25+?were used. Age-standardized emigration rates (ASER) by migrant origin and gender were calculated for the period 2001–2011. Additionally, relative return migration differences were calculated by country of origin and gender, adjusted for age group, length of stay, household composition, socio-economic indicators (education, home ownership and employment status) and self-rated health in 2001. Return migration was most common among immigrants from Spanish descent and from the neighbouring countries and higher among men than among women. Return migration was highly selective in terms of older age, lower length of stay in Belgium, not living with a partner or children, being high-educated, unemployed and in good health. Key issues for future research include examining the reasons for return migration, identifying the country of destination and accounting for household characteristics.

     

一所自己的房子：阶级、族裔和女性身份的追寻——评希斯内罗丝的《芒果街上的小屋》

美国当代墨西哥裔女作家桑德拉.希斯内罗丝的代表作《芒果街上的小屋》描述了墨西哥移民在美国辛酸的奋斗史。小说以一家移民后代的女儿埃斯佩朗莎.科德罗为主人公,讲述了她的成长经历,反映女主人公埃斯佩朗莎以及其她少数族裔女性在美国社会的弱势地位以及在家庭受男性压迫的现实,折射出以埃斯佩朗莎为代表的墨西哥裔女性对象征阶级、种族和性别平等的一所完全属于自己的房子不懈追寻的心声。     

Gender Equality and Fertility: Which Equality Matters?

Does gender equality matter for fertility? Demographic findings on this issue are rather inconclusive. We argue that one reason for this is that the complexity of the concept of gender equality has received insufficient attention. Gender equality needs to be conceptualized in a manner that goes beyond perceiving it as mere “sameness of distribution”. It needs to include notions of gender equity and thus to allow for distinguishing between gender difference and gender inequality. We sketch three dimensions of gender equality related to employment, financial resources, and family work, which incorporate this understanding: (1) the ability to maintain a household; (2) agency and the capability to choose; and (3) gender equity in household and care work. We explore their impact on childbearing intentions of women and men using the European Generations and Gender Surveys. Our results confirm the need for a more nuanced notion of gender equality in studies on the relationship between gender equality on fertility. They show that there is no uniform effect of gender equality on childbearing intentions, but that the impact varies by gender and by parity.     

Reforming social security for a long-life society: What impact on women?

As the populations of industrialized countries become progressively older, it becomes increasing apparent that traditional social security systems will have to be modified. This has sparked many questions about the future of social security systems. How can social security adapt to chaning family structures and the expected increase in retirees in a way not discriminating between men and women? to what extent will policy interventions impact differently on men and women? What is “fair” in terms of future pension contributions and benefits? This article attempts to address these questions. It reviews the main policy reforms countries have undertaken to address the long-life society challenge, considers the gender impact of such reforms and identifies the key questions policy-makers need to grapple with in ensuring fairness of outcome for men and women.     

Why do “Women’s jobs” have low pay for their educational level?

Jobs held largely by women have low pay for the amount of education they require. Why is this? One hypothesis is that employers prefer to hire men, and all workers prefer better jobs, so that women can get in only when a job's rewards (relative to its skill requirements) are low enough that men no longer want the job. Thus, wages affect sex composition. Others see the causal arrow to run the other way. In this view, the sex composition of jobs affects the wage that employers offer; employers' biased perceptions lead them to see jobs as less important and less payworthy if they are filled largely by women. These explanations are not mutually exclusive; the causal arrow may run both ways (or neither way). In this paper we use CPS data from 1984 to 1991 and a cross-lag panel model to examine these effects. Jobs are defined with a detailed occupational category within a specific broad industry category. We find that jobs with a higher percentage of females at one point have slower wage growth (or steeper wage decline) for both men and women in the ensuing years. But we find no effect of earlier wage rate on later sex composition. For those interested in reducing gender inequality in earnings, these findings suggest the utility of “comparable worth” policies.     

Diverse Effects of Women’s Employment on Fertility: Insights From Italy and Poland

In this paper, we look into how country-specific factors shape the interrelationship between childbearing and women’s labor supply. To this end, we compare Italy and Poland, two low-fertility countries where the country-specific obstacles to work and family reconciliation are similarly strong but which differ in the history of women’s labor supply and the extent to which couples’ material aspirations are satisfied by men’s earnings. Our findings show that women’s employment clearly conflicts with childbearing in Italy, while in Poland women tend to combine the two activities, despite the similar difficulties they face. These results challenged the standard microeconomic explanations and point to the importance of other country-specific factors, apart from conditions for work and family reconciliation, in shaping women’s employment and fertility decisions, such as economic incentives or culturally rooted behavioral patterns. Overall, our study provides thus foundations for explaining the variation in the relationship between women’s employment and fertility in an enlarged Europe.     

Immigrant Occupational Mobility: Longitudinal Evidence from Spain

This article examines the occupational mobility of immigrants between their countries of origin and Spain on the basis of one of the few surveys available internationally with longitudinal information on immigrant employment in home and host countries. The evidence shows that the occupational status of immigrants in the Spanish labour market is, in general, substantially worse than in their countries of origin. The severe loss of occupational status experienced by immigrants is explained by the combined effect of the intense initial downgrading they experience when entering the Spanish labour market and their very slow occupational progress during their stay in Spain. These findings are more in line with the segmented assimilation theory, which suggests a limited or blocked immigrant occupational mobility, than with the assimilation theory, which predicts a U shaped evolution in the occupational status of immigrants between their home and host countries. As a result, the Spanish case contrasts sharply with previous evidence for other advanced countries, which tends to support the assimilation perspective. Finally, the empirical evidence suggests that one of the elements impeding the occupational mobility of immigrants in Spain is the significant size of the secondary segment of the labour market, which restricts immigrants’ opportunities mainly to low-status occupations.     

“技术-劳动”的性别分工--从马克思主义女性主义视角阐释

马克思主义女性主义是马克思主义与女性主义“联姻”的产物。马克思主义女性主义的技术研究,是女性主义技术研究体系中独具特色的一个分支。在她们看来,女性的“工作”被限定在“技术含量”相对较低的家庭或私人领域,而男性则广泛地分布在“技术含量”相对较高的社会公共领域,这种劳动的性别分工成为性别政治不平等的根源。技术的发展使很多公共领域的劳动越来越适宜女性,可以说,工业劳动和自动化技术为妇女走出家庭、获得解放准备了前提。对女性群体进一步“细分”,探讨与女性相关的技术问题或与技术相关的女性问题,是马克思主义女性主义技术研究者应进一步努力的方向。     

管理者异质性对企业盈余管理的影响——基于 2009—2011 年 A 股上市公司的实证

由不同性别、年龄、教育背景、任期的管理者成员参与决策的企业盈余管理,严重影响财务报告质量和投资者保护,因而备受研究学者和监管层的关注。以2009-2011年沪、深两市A股上市公司作为研究样本,运用修正的Jones模型衡量上市公司盈余管理程度,分析了不同管理者在性别、年龄、教育背景、任期等方面的异质性对企业盈余管理的影响。研究发现：管理者性别异质性对企业盈余管理的影响不明显;管理者年龄异质性与企业盈余管理负相关;管理者教育背景异质性、任期异质性与企业盈余管理呈正相关关系。     

美国“亚太再平衡”战略探析

随着全球战略态势的变化和亚太经济的崛起,奥巴马政府上台以来,美国全球战略重心开始东移,提出了所谓的“亚太再平衡”战略。从2009年7月美国国务卿希拉里·克林顿在东盟地区论坛上高调宣称美国要“重返亚洲”到2012年6月帕内塔正式提出“亚太再平衡”战略,美国从外交、经济和军事等方面采取了一系列举动,出台了一系列新政策和新做法,实施“亚太再平衡”战略,其目的在于确立美国在亚太的主导地位,遏制中国的崛起。美国全球战略的调整将对世界政治产生深远的影响。     

评《典型的美国人》中“鸡尾酒”同化模式

华裔美国作家任璧莲的《典型的美国人》描写了华人拉尔夫一家移民美国，逐渐被美国主流社会同化，最后成为“典型的美国人”的故事。《典型的美国人》的同化模式就像一杯由“烈性”的美国文化和“调味”的中国文化调制而成的马提尼鸡尾酒，散发出独特的味道。     

从消除贫困到共同富裕：《贝弗里奇报告》80年

1942年发表的《贝弗里奇报告》试图解决英国社会的就业不足与贫困等问题。《贝弗里奇报告》的出台是英国社会结构变化的客观要求，它深受现代自由主义思潮以及凯恩斯主义的影响。该报告的发表推动福利国家在英国的实现，对欧美乃至亚非拉国家和地区的福利建设也产生了重要影响。但是，《贝弗里奇报告》本身蕴含着充分就业与福利供给互为因果、循环论证的矛盾，使得充分就业只是一种乌托邦，贫困、愚昧及无知等问题无法真正解决。克服对《贝弗里奇报告》的迷思，需要回归到福利乃至国家的社会性质，从共同富裕的高度探讨社会保险、社会救济与贫困等问题的关系，将实现充分就业、摆脱贫困置于共同富裕这一战略目标下，在普及教育基础上推动教育均衡发展，彻底解决充分就业与福利获得的矛盾、经济发展与贫困长存的矛盾。     

“双重劣势”情境下中国企业如何在海外新兴市场构建机会——基于网络理论的纵向案例研究

在“外来者”和“后发者”双重劣势情境下,中国跨国企业(Chinese Multinational Enterprises,以下简称CMNEs)如何通过“构建”机会的方式激活被锁定的海外市场,成为学界和业界关注的焦点话题。采取探索性案例研究方法,通过梳理案例企业(传音)在非洲、南亚等海外新兴市场的拓展过程,以期解构CMNEs在海外新兴市场机会构建的内在机制。研究发现:(1)CMNEs海外市场机会构建是企业将潜在机会集转变并开发为现实具体机会的过程,随着机会形态的不断迭代,企业认知焦点也会随之变化,并呈现出“洞察—聚焦痛点—反思”动态转化轨迹;(2)在不同认知焦点驱动下,CMNEs通过快速连接、超预期匹配以及共创这3个关键行动与之匹配,并最终实现海外机会雏形落地、机会修正与机会开发最大化。从“认知-行动”整合视角,提炼了CMNEs在海外新兴市场机会构建的理论模型,对中国企业在新兴市场拓展具有实践启示和指导意义。