Marketing Strategies and Market Prospects for Environmentally-Friendly Consumer Products1

Recent evidence suggests that the extent of consumer adoption of ‘green’ products is much less than would be indicated by the enthusiastic opinion poll evidence concerning public attitudes towards environmentally-friendly consumption. This paper reports on an empirical analysis of firms' marketing strategies and their influence on consumer demand for green products. In twenty 2–3 hour interviews with senior managers, four representative groups of markets were analysed household detergents, paper (recycled), petrol (unleaded) and automobile technology (focusing on catalytic converters). According to managers, firms' marketing strategies influenced consumer demand by making green technologies available in the fwst instance. However, barriers to supplying green products that show panty with, or better performance than, conventional technologies constrain pricing and communication efforts Managers stressed that, in the absence of clarity of green products' environmental benefits, product performance and other attributes, not green benefits, remain the main determinants of product preference and choice. Promotions focused much more on consumers than distribution channels, yet channel acceptance and support of green innovations are paramount in facilitating sales. Firms see the costs of generating and promoting desirable green technologies as barriers to diffusion in the immediate future. Legislation and/or economic incentives may help, but manufacturers are not optimistic that future green consumption rates will accelerate. The results also highlight several propositions concerning the discrepancy between consumer environmental concerns and purchasing actions which warrant further testing: there is mis-specification of green products in relation to consumers'needs; there are barriers to perceptions of green products' environmental impact and consumers' free ride due to individual self-interest.     

多渠道零售环境下消费者渠道选择意愿形成机理研究——产品类别特征的调节作用

传统与网络结合的多渠道正成为零售业的标准模式，多渠道零售环境下，消费者渠道决策发生了根本变化，在不同购买决策过程阶段运用不同渠道的行为日益普遍，但尚未有文献基于搜索信息和产品购买两个阶段，引入产品类别特征对消费者渠道选择意愿形成机理展开研究。运用感知价值理论、信任转移理论构建了消费者搜索意愿和购买意愿形成机理概念模型，分析了渠道属性、渠道内锁定、渠道间协同对消费者搜索与购买意愿的影响及产品搜索性与风险性对其的调节作用，运用联立方程建模并求解发现：渠道属性、渠道内锁定、渠道间协同显著影响消费者搜索意愿和购买意愿；购买高风险搜索产品（如计算机、手机）、低风险搜索产品（如书、文具）、高风险体验产品（如服装、化妆品）、低风险体验产品（如玩具、零食）时，渠道属性、渠道内锁定、渠道间协同对消费者渠道选择意愿的影响存在明显差异；渠道搜索属性如信息有效性、搜索便利性、品种丰富性、社会互动性正向影响消费者搜索意愿，搜索努力负向影响消费者搜索意愿，渠道购买属性如服务质量、购买便利性、享乐性正向影响消费者购买意愿，购买努力、购买风险负向影响消费者购买意愿；传统渠道具有锁定性，网络渠道缺乏锁定性，但购买低风险搜索产品时，网络渠道具有锁定性；购买高风险产品时，传统渠道与网络渠道存在协同性，对于高风险搜索产品，消费者网络渠道搜索意愿正向影响其传统渠道购买意愿，而对于高风险体验产品，还存在消费者传统渠道搜索意愿正向影响其网络渠道购买意愿的协同性，但对于低风险产品，传统渠道与网络渠道缺乏协同性。     

Judgments of Personal and Environmental Risks of Consumer Products—Do they Differ?

Many psychometric studies have investigated judgments concerning personal risks from technologies, activities or consumer products, but only a few studies have included judgments of risk to the environment. Thus, little is known about this aspect of environmental risk perception, and whether it differs from personal risk perception. This study investigates risk judgments for 30 consumer products of various types such as herbal remedies, mobile telephones, genetically engineered drugs, or garden pesticides. A survey was conducted in two German cities: Leipzig and West Berlin. In total, 408 subjects evaluated the consumer products with regard to personal and environmental risk (and other risk-related aspects) and whether they would recommend the product to others. The findings show statistically significant differences between the mean values of perceived personal risk and environmental risk for most products. Despite these differences, the rank order of mean personal risk and environmental risk judgments for the products is quite similar. However, separate analyses for each product reveal that correlations between perceived personal and environmental risk vary strongly across products. Multiple regression analyses with personal and environmental risk judgments as predictors and product recommendation as criterion, run separately for each consumer product, show that it is mainly the judgment of perceived personal risk that explains product recommendation. Perceived risk to the environment adds little explanatory power. The study also explores differences in judgments of personal and environmental risk with regard to two sociodemographic variables: location (former East Germany vs. West Germany) and gender. Differences in both types of risk judgments are found with regard to location but not for gender.     

Potential exposures and risks from beryllium-containing products.

Beryllium is the strongest of the lightweight metals. Used primarily in military applications prior to the end of the Cold War, beryllium is finding new applications in many commercial products, including computers, telecommunication equipment, and consumer and automotive electronics. The use of beryllium in nondefense consumer applications is of concern because beryllium is toxic. Inhalation of beryllium dust or vapor causes a chronic lung disease in some individuals at concentrations as low as 0.01 microg/m3 in air. As beryllium enters wider commerce, it is prudent to ask what risks this might present to the general public and to workers downstream of the beryllium materials industry. We address this question by evaluating the potential for beryllium exposure from the manufacturing, use, recycle, and disposal of beryllium-containing products. Combining a market study with a qualitative exposure analysis, we determine which beryllium applications and life cycle phases have the largest exposure potential. Our analysis suggests that use and maintenance of the most common types of beryllium-containing products do not result in any obvious exposures of concern, and that maintenance activities result in greater exposures than product use. Product disposal has potential to present significant individual risks, but uncertainties concerning current and future routes of product disposal make it difficult to be definitive. Overall, additional exposure and dose-response data are needed to evaluate both the health significance of many exposure scenarios, and the adequacy of existing regulations to protect workers and the public. Although public exposures to beryllium and public awareness and concern regarding beryllium risks are currently low, beryllium risks have psychometric qualities that may lead to rapidly heightened public concern.     

考虑消费者网购体验滞后的产品定价研究

随着电子商务技术的发展，网络购物越来越便利。与此同时，网络购物带来的产品体验滞后也导致了消费者对产品的认知不确定性。而这种不确定性正在成为消费者策略性退货行为的主要原因，如消费者同时购买多件具有横向差异的产品，在收到货物后经亲身体验后保留一件而将其他产品退货。本文通过构建Hotelling模型，探讨了企业在考虑此种影响情况下的最优定价策略，分析得出：当消费者的退货成本增加时，企业最优定价也随之增加；消费者对产品的先验效用差异化越小，企业的最优定价也越低。同时发现，若某种产品无消费者单独购买，企业的最优定价会随消费者偏好的增加而增加；而当两种产品均有消费者单独购买且消费者退货成本较大时，企业的最优定价不但不会随消费者偏好的增加而提高，反而会随消费者偏好增加而减少。此外，本文给出了消费者策略性退货行为存在的临界条件，当消费者的退货成本高于这一临界条件时消费者的策略退货行为将消失。     

基于消费者情绪效用下劣势耐用品企业的延保服务策略有效性研究

基于消费者情绪效用对耐用品企业延保服务策略有效性的影响，构建双寡头微分博弈模型，研究耐用品企业的延保服务策略对产品均衡价格的影响特征，并进一步讨论了劣势耐用品企业延保服务策略的有效性。结论表明：服务投入在不同范围内，产品均衡价格随着服务投入的增加而变化的特征不同；高质量企业的延保最优价格与服务投入成递增关系变化，而低质量企业的延保最优价格随服务投入增加的变化特征还与其故障率、延保期等因素有关。低质量耐用品企业的服务投入满足大于1时，采取增加服务投入缩小与高质量产品的价格差是有效的；只有在一定条件下，采取延长质保期、延保期策略缩小价格差才是有效的。最后，利用数值分析法进一步验证了结论的合理性。研究可为耐用品企业有效实施延保服务策略提供决策支持。     

Group Selling,Product Durability,and Consumer Behavior

Firms producing complementary goods often strategically form groups and jointly sell their products to better coordinate their decisions. For consumer durables, decisions about such collaboration might be complicated due to two factors. Because of their durability and presence of used goods markets, such products engender “future” price competition between new and used goods. On the other hand, consumers of such products might be forward‐looking and patient, both of which affect their purchasing behavior. In this study, we study how the above product and consumer characteristics interact to affect the group selling decisions of complementary firms. We do so through a two‐period model consisting of a value chain with two upstream manufacturers and a downstream retailer. When consumers are relatively impatient and reluctant to wait to buy later, group selling by manufacturers will take place only when the end product is relatively perishable, that is, product durability is low. However, if consumers are patient, that is, willing to wait, collaboration happens only when the end product is quite durable; for relatively perishable products the manufacturers sell their products separately. We also comment on how our results are affected by factors like manufacturers directly selling to end consumers or there being multiple opportunities to decide whether or not to use group selling strategy.     

Labeling of nanotechnology consumer products can influence risk and benefit perceptions

Currently, there is no mandatory labeling for products containing synthetic nanoparticles. The public as well as other stakeholders have positive views about mandatory labeling. However, little is known how such a label influences the risk and benefit perception of a product. Consumers may infer that a label is a signal that there are risks associated with this technology. Data were collected in a survey experiment (N= 1,382). Participants were randomly assigned to one of six conditions. The control group received a picture of a sunscreen container without a label. One experimental group received a picture of a sunscreen container with a label. The other groups received, in addition to the sunscreen container with a label, some risk or benefit information. Results suggest that labeling of products may reduce consumers' benefit perception and increase risk perception. Labeling nanotechnology consumer products may change the public perception of the products. Respondents may have relied on the affect heuristic for assessing the risks and benefits of the sunscreen.     

多主体参与的绿色技术创新系统均衡及稳定性

构建由政府、企业和消费者组成的绿色技术创新系统演化博弈模型,分析了不同情形下参与主体策略选择对系统均衡策略影响的演化过程,并借助系统动力学实验方法进行了实验模拟论证。研究发现：（1）在绿色技术创新演化博弈系统所有可能的均衡策略中,只存在三个稳定的均衡策略,其中,绿色产品消费的经济收益和绿色技术创新品牌收益是驱动博弈系统向不同稳定均衡策略演进的重要动力。（2）企业绿色技术创新品牌收益和消费者绿色产品消费的经济收益是影响博弈演化系统最终向不同稳定均衡策略演进的主要因素。（3）在均衡状态（1,1,1）和均衡状态（1,0,0）下,通过促进消费者采取购买绿色产品策略对绿色技术创新系统的影响更为显著;在均衡状态（1,1,0）下,促进消费者采取购买绿色产品策略对绿色技术创新系统的影响更为显著,而提高市场规制强度和企业绿色技术创新意愿的影响效果较为微弱。     

Risk assessment based on a STPA–FMEA method: A case study of a sweeping robot

Despite rapid developments in the quality and safety of consumer products, the rise of intelligent household appliances, such as sweeping robots, has introduced new safety concerns. Considering “person–product–environment” elements and the complex systems of emerging consumer products, this study presents a new method of risk assessment for consumer products: systems theoretic process analysis (STPA)–failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA). As a case study, this method is applied to the safety control of a sweeping robot. The results suggest that this method can identify all the possible failure modes and injury scenarios among the product components, and the safety constraints in the hierarchical control structure of the interactive system. Moreover, the STPA–FMEA method combines user and environmental factors with the value of product risk events, based on the risk priority number (RPN). This provides an accurate and orderly system to reduce or eliminate the root causes of accidents and injuries. Finally, analysis of unsafe control behavior and its causes can be used to suggest improved safety constraints, which can effectively reduce the risk of some injury scenarios. This paper presents a new method of risk assessment for consumer products and a general five-level complex index system.     

Consumer perceptions of trout as a food item

The impacts of socioeconomic/demographic characteristics, experiences and preferences of consumers on trout purchasing decisions were estimated using Probit and Ordered Probit regression techniques. Data from a survey of consumer purchasing behavior and personal attributes were used to deduce factors that led to either a high or low likelihood of purchasing trout products. Analysis of data pertaining to whole trout and value-added products yielded consistently different characteristics of consumers who show a high affinity toward purchasing one or more of such products. Results from these analyses were used to suggest techniques for marketing whole trout and value-added trout products to specific segments of the consumer population.     

基于消费者评论的网络预售定价策略研究

在线消费者评论成为影响消费者购买行为的重要因素。本文构建两阶段销售模型（预售期、正常销售期），通过刻画预售期消费者评论对正常销售期需求的影响，探究消费者评论如何影响商家定价策略以及商家如何利用消费者评论调节竞争。结果表明，无论在垄断或竞争市场情形下，若忠实消费者选择等待至正常销售期购买产品，商家均会采取折价预售策略，即通过降低预售期价格提升消费者评论，刺激正常销售期的产品需求。在竞争市场情形下，若普通消费者的产品偏好成本非常低且预售期购买量较小，商家的折价预售策略能通过提升消费者评论以阻止竞争者进入市场；随着普通消费者产品偏好成本增大，商家会将重心转向忠实消费者，进而缓解商家之间的竞争。     

DRIVERS OF INTERNET PURCHASING SUCCESS

The development of the Internet as a business tool over the past 5 years has been phenomenal, causing a period of chaos and creative destruction. E‐commerce has been hyped as a catalyst for vast streamlining of the supply chain. Yet, in a time of such phenomenal change, the focus tends to be on the large picture. Many details of how a new technology should be or is employed tend to be unknown or ignored. However, as the technology matures and stabilizes, one of the primary factors that separate winners from losers is the way in which the technology is implemented and operated on a daily basis. This study examines the ways in which companies utilize the Internet to streamline their purchasing process. A survey of 416 customers of a major Internet retailer of commodity office supplies reveals important relationships between web site design, employee work environments, Internet strategy, and purchasing performance. Our sample of companies consists of firms that have ordered office supplies at least once using the Internet. Our data indicate that companies do realize performance benefits from utilizing the Internet as a purchasing tool. Furthermore, the data suggest factors that facilitate purchasing process improvements. These factors can be utilized by both buying and selling companies to improve their proprietary processes to maximize the benefits of e‐commerce as a purchasing tool.     

绿色食品信息、价值属性对绿色购买行为影响实证研究

根据EKB模型、H-S模型和消费价值模型,结合绿色食品自身特征,构建了绿色信息传播、绿色产品属性、消费者购买行为3个构面的模型。通过问卷调查,分析了绿色信息传播和绿色产品属性的直接关系程度,以及绿色信息传播、绿色产品属性对消费者购买行为的影响。主要研究结论：绿色信息传播对绿色产品属性有普遍直接影响,绿色信息传播、绿色产品价值属性对消费者购买行为有直接影响。     

Barriers to green innovation initiatives among manufacturers: the Malaysian case

This study investigated the internal and external barriers to green innovation initiatives among Malaysian manufacturers. Data was gathered through a survey of 153 manufacturing companies in Malaysia. Data was analyzed using the partial least squares technique. Results indicated that the barriers to green products, processes, and systems innovations are different. Issues of environmental resources, attitude and perception, business practices, government support, and customer demand were found to be the barriers to green product innovations, whereas attitude and perception, business practices, poor external partnerships, insufficient information, lack of customer demand, and environmental commercial benefits were determined to be the factors that negatively affect green process innovations. As regards green system innovation, environmental resources, attitude and perception, business practices, technical barriers, government support, and environmental and commercial benefits presented themselves as the internal and external barriers that need to be addressed. The results have important implications for managers of manufacturers that have plans of promoting green products, processes, and system innovations.     

Environmentally-conscious product stewardship at The Boeing Company

Environmentally-conscious product stewardship involves attempts to limit the impact of products on the environment. Early stewardship efforts within facilities (i.e., end of the pipe reduction) have given way to broader concepts of limiting environmental impact and extending efforts beyond the facility walls.The implementation of stewardship at The Boeing Company differs from that which might typically be found in a consumer products company. As Laurence Weinberg reveals in this article, this difference stems from the nature of Boeing as a company, the characteristics of its customers, the attributes of its products, and the areas of environmental concern associated with the life cycle of these products. At Boeing, stewardship is diffused throughout the company rather than being the responsibility of one organization.     

慈善营销中契合度、熟悉度和产品性质对消费者响应的影响

本文通过实验设计,探讨了慈善营销中产品与慈善组织的契合度、消费者对慈善组织的熟悉度以及产品性质对消费者响应的影响,并得出了结论:契合度、熟悉度和产品性质对消费者响应存在主效应,契合度与熟悉度之间、契合度与产品性质之间存在交互效应。根据研究结论,作者针对企业选择合作伙伴、开展慈善营销提出了相应的启示。     

零售商主导下促进绿色产品需求的联合研发契约协调研究

针对绿色环保产品价格过高,阻碍其成为主流消费品这一现实问题,在绿色经济背景下,探讨零售商向负责绿色研发成本投入的制造商提供不同联合研发契约时的供应链均衡策略和协调问题。以零售商主导的双边垄断型绿色供应链为研究对象,在考虑消费者环保意识、产品绿色度水平、价格等多种因素影响需求的基础上,分别探讨批发价契约、成本分担契约和两部制契约对绿色产品需求、供应链成员利润及渠道利润的影响。结果表明,成本分担契约无法实现供应链成员利润的Pareta改进;一定条件下,两部制契约可以实现供应链成员利润的双赢,并提高绿色产品的市场需求。此外,虽然消费者环保意识的提高并不总是会带来绿色产品市场需求的增加,但却总是会使得绿色供应链的利润提高;并且较高的消费者环保意识将激励企业追求一个较低的绿色成本系数,从而促使企业积极进行绿色技术创新努力。     

Take‐Back Legislation: Consequences for Remanufacturing and Environment

In the last two decades, many countries have enacted product take‐back legislation that holds manufacturers responsible for the collection and environmentally sound treatment of end‐of‐use products. In an industry regulated by such legislation, we consider a manufacturer that also sells remanufactured products under its brand name. Using a stylized model, we consider three levels of legislation: no take‐back legislation, legislation with collection targets, and legislation with collection and reuse targets. We characterize the optimal solution for the manufacturer and analyze how various levels of legislation affect manufacturing, remanufacturing, and collection decisions. First, we explore whether legislation with only collection targets causes an increase in remanufacturing levels, which is argued to be an environmentally friendlier option for end‐of‐use treatment than other options such as recycling. While increased remanufacturing alone is usually perceived as a favorable environmental outcome, if one considers the overall environmental impact of new and remanufactured products, this might not be the case. To study this issue, we model the environmental impact of the product following a life cycle analysis–based approach. We characterize the conditions under which increased remanufacturing due to take‐back legislation causes an increase in total environmental impact. Finally, we model the impact of legislation on consumer surplus and manufacturer profits and identify when total welfare goes down because of legislation.     

产品扩散模型在Internet采用者分析中的应用

利用Bass创新扩散模型描述Internet的扩散过程,有利于分析Internet的市场前景,确保其有效扩散并占领市场。论文首先对影响产品扩散的因素进行定性分析及对其扩散过程进行定量分析,然后应用Bass扩散模型对Internet进行扩散模型实例分析。论文根据所统计的Internet上网用户数,对Internet采用者扩散过程进行了模型参数的估计,建立了Internet采用者扩散模型,并对今后几年Internet产品扩散过程进行了预测和展望。