Empowering communities through evaluation: some lessons from rural Spain

The practice of evaluation has generated a culture that hasbecome part of the implementation and management of public policiesin Europe. Rural areas, with little tradition of evaluation,have been most challenged by its introduction. This paper analysesthe influence of evaluation activities in three local programsand partnerships created in the rural areas of Madrid underthe European LEADER initiative, whose aim is to encourage ruraldevelopment at the local level. The results show the capacityof evaluation to foster community empowerment. The expansionof evaluation culture at the local level can translate intoone of continuous improvement that supports empowerment andcommunity development.     

Building institutional capacity in rural Northern Ireland: the role of partnership governance in the LEADER II programme

Throughout the 1990s, Europe's rural areas increasingly embraced local action and local development solutions to face the challenge of the continued re-structuring of the agricultural industry. In parallel, in both the EU and the UK, a policy discourse has emerged which envisages a fundamental shift in support policies for rural areas from a sectoral approach (essentially agriculture) to one that is territorial. At the vanguard of these developments has been the EC's LEADER Programme. From a low base of entrepreneurial activity in rural Northern Ireland, LEADER area-based local action groups have acted as beacons for developing new approaches to diversifying the rural economy—in particular stimulating a significant reappraisal of the rural resource base. This paper charts the operational terrain of LEADER local action groups in the Province, suggesting that their strengths have been in developing the institutional capacity of rural communities and brokering connections in the local economy. Examples will be considered which illustrate enhanced coordination and collaboration of local economic actors and sectoral interests, and a strong facilitator role for LEADER groups in the local arena, with an explicit rural focus. The paper argues that this multi-level collaborative activity is rooted in partnership governance, enabling a communicative process among local stakeholders.     

Building evaluation capacity in Spain: a case study of rural development and empowerment in the European Union

The development of European Community administrative authority has greatly influenced the development of an evaluation culture among the southern and central member states of the European Union. The present case study from Spain provides an example of this diffusion through the use of an empowerment evaluation approach to build evaluation capacity within the context of rural development. The study focuses on the evaluation process over a 10-year period of three local development programs run by three local partnerships created in the rural areas of the Madrid region through the European LEADER initiative. Critical components of empowerment evaluation are discussed, as well as the impact, limitations, difficulties, and applicability of the approach to rural development in the European Union. Conclusions are presented concerning evaluation capacity building and the development of an evaluation culture.     

Territory,structures and interpretation — Two case studies of the European Union's LEADER I programme

This paper reflects on the nature of the EU LEADER I local (participative) rural development programme using two empirical case studies. The two initiatives are analysed temporally as they moved from the construction of a territorial rationale, through the establishment of local structures of participation and finally into a philosophy and modus operandi in the implementation phase. The central argument of the paper is that this style of approach reflects the basic principles of the local, territorial policy approach and that evaluation methods need to evolve to be able to focus on process, structures and interpretation/learning rather than on the measurement of concrete activity.     

Rethinking the changing structures of rural local government – State power,rural politics and local political strategies?

There is a notable absence in contemporary rural studies – of both a theoretical and empirical nature – concerning the changing nature of rural local government. Despite the scale and significance of successive rounds of local government reorganisation in the UK, very little has been written on this topic from a rural perspective. Instead research on local political change has tended to concentrate on local governance and local partnerships – on the extra-governmental aspects of the governance system – rather than on local government itself. In contrast, this paper draws upon strategic-relational state theory to explore the changing structures and institutions of rural local government, and analyse how these can be related to the changing state strategies of those groups which are politically powerful in rural areas. In this respect, the paper draws on current and previous rounds of local government reorganisation to illustrate how new objects of governance, new state strategies and new hegemonic projects are emerging as a consequence of such restructuring processes.     

Creating Community Partnership as Foundation for Community Building: The Case of the Renewed Kibbutz

ABSTRACT

Expansion neighborhoods, built adjacent to kibbutz neighborhoods, are a new phenomenon in the rural peripheral regions of Israel. This article evaluates the process of building community partnerships, describes frictions created between residents of the expansion neighborhoods and kibbutz members, and defines challenges that need to be overcome in order to build an integrated community within the renewed kibbutz.Data collection was based on face-to-face interviews with new residents and officials from 10 kibbutzim. Qualitative analysis show the complexity involved in the process of building community partnerships and emphasizes the need to develop structures that will allow for dialogue and collaboration.     

Locating the Community Field: A Study of Interorganizational Network Structure and Capacity for Community Action*

Abstract I examine the concept of the community field to identify the structures, elements, and processes that generate improved capacity for community action. I conduct analysis of interlocking leadership among local organizations and recent community action in three Midwestern communities to determine the structure and attributes of the community field. I use findings from community power research to anticipate and guide interpretation of the different network structures found in each community. A community field is identified in the communities with pyramidal and coalitional structures. Inclusive, coordinating networks, institutions with stockpiled resources, and the existence of local planning processes are some of the community field‐like structures and processes I identify. The findings have implications for future rural community research and practice, including support for increased use of network analysis as a diagnostic tool for community development.     

Identifying social innovations in European local rural development initiatives

Social innovation is attracting increasing attention in research and policy, heightened by continuing austerity across Europe. Therefore, this paper examines earlier research into community-led local development (CLLD) initiatives in rural areas of Europe to develop our understanding of the meaning and scope of rural social innovation. We draw on a Schumpeterian view where innovations emerge from new combinations of resources that bring about positive changes and create value in society. A Schumpeterian social innovation framework is derived as the basis for re-analysing data from previous evaluations of LEADER policy in five different national contexts. This elicits a clearer understanding of social innovation in a rural development context, identifying different processes and outcomes that create social value. As the CLLD agenda and the demand for innovation in Europe gather pace, our aspirations are to inform future research and other initiatives on how to integrate social innovation into the design and evaluation of new rural development policies and programmes.     

A model of impacts of research partnerships in health and social services

Alliances have long been an important strategy for health promotion and community development. They are now becoming an important approach to generating research that is thought to have real-world relevance and easy applicability because of the involvement of community members. A comprehensive, dynamic model of community impacts of research partnerships in social or health services is presented. This process-oriented, systems model outlines three major domains of mid-term impact (Enhanced Knowledge, Enhanced Research Skills, and Use of Information) that correspond to the core functions of collaborative research partnerships discussed in the literature (i.e. knowledge generation, research education and training, and knowledge sharing). The model will assist research partners, intended recipients, and funders to understand and evaluate the real-world impacts of community–university research partnerships. The model provides research partnerships with a tool to demonstrate their accountability and to improve their operations and impacts, and evaluators with a tool to guide planning and evaluation efforts.     

Rural governance,community empowerment and the new institutionalism: A case study of the Isle of Wight

This article compares two different institutional models—state-sponsored rural partnerships and community-based development trusts—for engaging and empowering local communities in area-based regeneration, using the Isle of Wight as a case study. Following a critical review of the literature on community governance, we evaluate the effectiveness of community involvement in the Island's small towns through a comparison of the performance of the two development trusts in Cowes and Ryde, on the one hand, and that of the partnerships established under the Market Towns Initiative in Sandown, Shanklin and Ventnor, on the other. We conclude that both models reflect the structuring effect of central, regional and local state steering of the Island's regeneration policy community but also that a ‘development trust effect’ is observable in one location (Ryde), due to a capacity to stimulate new forms of community enterprise and to successfully alter political relationships within the local community. These findings support a ‘new institutionalist’ account of community empowerment which emphasises the importance of contextual variation and locally specific processes of institutionalisation rather than the determining effect of institutional design per se.     

New community governance in small rural towns: the Australian experience

State and federal governments in Australia have developed a range of policy instruments for rural areas in Australia that are infused with a new sense of ‘community’, employing leading concepts like social capital, social enterprise, community development, partnerships and community building. This has encouraged local people and organisations to play a greater role in the provision of their local services and has led to the development of a variety of ‘community’ organisations aimed at stemming social and economic decline. In Victoria, local decision-making, before municipal amalgamations, gave small towns some sense of autonomy and some discretion over their affairs. However, following municipal amalgamations these small towns lost many of the resources—legal, financial, political, informational and organisational—associated with their former municipal status. This left a vacuum in these communities and the outcome was the emergence of local development groups. Some of these groups are new but many of them are organisations that have been reconstituted as groups with a broader community focus. The outcomes have varied from place to place but overall there has been a significant shift in governance processes at community level. This paper looks at the processes of ‘community governance’ and how it applies in a number of case studies in Victoria.     

Local resident composition in the community and local identity among rural migrants in Guangzhou,China

In China, how does the proportion of local-born residents in a community shape the local identity of rural migrants who do not have the local hukou that would allow them to enjoy the local benefits and welfare provided by the government? Our findings show that despite their socially marginalized status, the migrants' level of local identity is strongly related to community composition. Our study is based on data collected recently in Guangzhou, a major city in southern China that has been a popular destination for rural migrants. We found that living in a community with a high percentage of local residents significantly improves the local identity of rural migrants. However, frequent social interaction with local residents mediates this relationship in a community where about half of the residents are local. We also found that the migrants' subjective perception of socioeconomic status positively mediates the relationship between the proportion of local residents in the community and the local identity of rural migrants.     

Organizational Responsibility for Age-Friendly Social Participation: Views of Australian Rural Community Stakeholders

This qualitative study critically explores the barriers experienced by diverse rural community stakeholders in facilitating environments that enable age-friendly social participation. Twenty-six semi-structured interviews were conducted across two rural Australian communities with stakeholders from local government, health, social care, and community organizations. Findings identify that rural community stakeholders face significant difficulties in securing resources for groups and activities catering to older adults, which subsequently impacts their capacity to undertake outreach to older adults. However, in discussing these issues, questions were raised in relation to whose responsibility it is to provide resources for community groups and organizations providing social initiatives and whose responsibility it is to engage isolated seniors. These findings provide a much-needed critical perspective on current age-friendly research by acknowledging the responsibilities of various macro-level social structures—different community-level organizations, local government, and policy in fostering environments to enable participation of diverse rural older adults.     

Rural governance and local involvement: assessing state—community relations in the Scottish Highlands

Questions of rural governance have been attracting growing interest in recent years as rural analysts turn their attention to the institutional transformations that are taking place in and around the local state. This paper is concerned with the relationships between new governance agencies and rural communities. It follows recent contributions to the rural studies literature by adopting a ‘governmentality’ perspective which views the current emphasis on community involvement and empowerment as part of a broader neo-liberal strategy of ‘governing through community’. In the paper, I address a particular gap in the governmentality literature by examining how the underlying shift towards community action and local involvement is mediated and implemented by local and regional agencies in the Scottish Highlands, focusing specifically on the relationship between local enterprise companies and local communities. As such, the paper explores the tension between the concern with local participation and the reliance upon a set of managerial ‘technologies’ such as targeting and financial controls which reflect a need to ensure that local agencies are accountable to (central) government. The paper argues that while local state agencies must be analysed within wider circuits of power, local agencies and community groups retain some capacity to influence processes of rural governance. In conclusion, I suggest that the governmentality approach provides some critical insights for re-interpreting and analysing rural governance as a particular field of research.     

Parish councils,partnership and governance: the development of ‘exceptions’ housing in the Malvern Hills District,England

Partnerships between public, private and voluntary sectors have been feted as an effective strategy to broaden engagement with policy delivery. However, their legitimacy has been questioned as some of the power relations within and between partnerships raise doubts over their inclusiveness and effectiveness. In light of these concerns, this paper examines ‘partnerships projects’ established to build affordable housing for local people in rural Worcestershire. Particular emphasis is given to the role and power of parish councils within these partnerships. It is argued that far from leading to greater participation, such partnerships can give voice and power to those who seek to exclude particular groups from rural spaces.     

Community-based behavioral health interventions: Developing strong community partnerships

The popularity of community-based interventions has experienced a revival over the last two decades. The general theme behind this trend is that greater community involvement provides researchers and practitioners with culturally relevant information to make interventions successful. This involvement is usually solicited through the formation of community coalitions and advisory boards. Although the positive influence of community partnerships is well established, strategies for successfully developing and sustaining these partnerships are less clear. To address this gap, this paper presents evaluation findings from The Making Connections Initiative, a national effort emphasizing community-level prevention strategies for improving the mental health of men/boys. Sixteen grantees were tasked with developing a coalition of community organizations to provide input into the development and implementation of a local prevention initiative. An evaluation of the 16 grantees’ planning activities identified four themes related to developing and sustaining successful community partnerships. This article reports on the strategies that were found most successful across grantees. With the increasing popularity of community-based programs, strategies for successfully partnering with local organizations are particularly important. This study adds to the limited research on best practices for forming community partnerships and should serve as a guide for community-based evaluators and program planners.     

Evidence of a Housing Decision Chain in Rural Community Vitality*

Abstract The purpose of this research was to explore and explain the role housing plays in rural community vitality. Community vitality refers to economic strength and social well‐being. In spring 2002 we collected primary interview data from informants in 134 small rural communities in nine north‐central states and identified related secondary data from the U.S. census. We developed a structural‐equation‐path model, which supported a “housing decision chain” that influenced community vitality. Based on this research, local housing decisions do play an important role in community vitality. Strong local leaders use housing planning to secure funding to produce a change in the quantity of housing, which in turn positively influences community vitality. Housing inventory also mediated the effects of total population and percentage population change on community vitality, indicating that housing supply is a fundamental ingredient in community growth strategies. These findings support the conclusion that a combination of housing plans and strategies orchestrated by skilled, committed leadership strengthens rural communities. Heretofore the ling between housing and community vitality has not been investigated; evidence‐based data has been missing from the debate on viable rural community‐development strategies.     

Issues of Integration,Participation and Empowerment in Rural Development: The Case of LEADER in the Republic of Ireland

Currently, within the European Union increasing emphasis is being placed on devising innovative development strategies for rural areas. Considerable stress is laid on integration, participation and empowerment. Integration implies a need for cross-sectoral harmonisation of developmental objectives as well as increased co-ordination between agencies involved in the developmental process. Participation implies consultation with those most directly affected, namely rural dwellers, hence increasing the level of involvement of local people in the development process. Empowerment suggests a greater degree of influence being wielded by local residents and, thus, some shift in the power balance between ‘centre’ and ‘periphery’ and between ‘professionals’ and ‘amateurs’. In practise, this has resulted in a plethora of initiatives which, to a greater or lesser extent, espouse the idea of a more locally attuned ‘bottom-up’ approach to rural development stressing the importance of involving local communities. This approach is seen as a more appropriate mechanism than traditional ‘top-down’ strategies. Within Ireland, a number of programmes have been in operation since the late 1980s. This paper presents some evidence from on-going research on LEADER II in Ireland suggesting that there are a number of issues which need to be teased out with regard to current initiatives. Power relationships at both national and local levels need to be explored. While there may well be beneficial outcomes, the nature and extent of participation is quite variable. It may well be more valid to view current developments in terms of a process of incorporation rather than a move to a ‘bottom-up’ participatory model. While current strategies may represent a positive move, there is a need to ensure that the rhetoric being employed is translated into reality.     

Rethinking the European countryside—can we learn from the South?

A new paradigm of multi-dimensional rural development has emerged which advocates a broader conception of the rurality where the rural is no longer the monopoly of the farmer. This new, broader paradigm needs to be reflected in the methodology of social scientific research, both generic and applied. In this paper we are primarily concerned with transfer of research methodologies utilised in development studies in the South to explore their usefulness for rethinking the European countryside. Such a transfer of methodology may be helpful, because integrated rural development can build on a long legacy in the South, while it has only recently been advocated in the EU context. The paper reflects upon the application of two such analytical concepts originating from development studies, which we have applied for research on the rural geographies in the European countryside, namely Sen's livelihood capabilities approach and Chambers’ concept of participatory rural appraisal (PRA). Having the sustainable livelihoods approach as overall framework, both methodologies are qualitative in nature and address people's survival strategies and livelihood practices with a focus on micro-level analysis at individual, household (Sen) and community level (PRA), while reflecting their embeddedness in wider social, political and economic structures. Our comparative studies suggest that the prospects for bottom-up development, as orchestrated by PRA or similar approaches, is constrained by structural factors, which define the boundaries for local development. The capabilities approach is useful to detect the capabilities to act and be within which bottom-up approaches may take their—though limited—role in rural development.     

Building School,Family, and Community Partnerships: Developing a Theoretical Framework

School, family, and community partnerships are among the suite of strategies advocated for improved school outcomes in which social workers can play a valuable role. Such partnerships are complex to implement in practice and there is little systematic research to guide the practitioner. This study evaluated an early intervention partnership program involving school, family, community, and philanthropic partners implemented in two primary schools in rural Victoria, Australia. The findings highlighted challenges in the process of evaluation and program implementation and in the opportunities this provided to identify key enabling factors. These involved having: a shared vision and aims; democratic governance; a supportive policy and organisational environment including external funding; workers with skills and clear roles; activities for project momentum; and ongoing review and evaluation. These factors can be used by social workers and others working with schools as a valuable conceptual framework to facilitate school, family, and community partnership processes.