Job crafting and well-being among school principals: The role of basic psychological need satisfaction and frustration

This study investigates the associations between school principals’ job crafting and well-being. Drawing on the job demands-resources approach of the job crafting model and self-determination theory, we hypothesized that need satisfaction and need frustration act as likely mechanisms between the positive and negative effects of job crafting behaviors and work-related well-being (work engagement and burnout). Using cross-sectional data collected from a sample of Finnish school principals (n = 518), our structural equation model revealed that crafting structural job resources was positively associated with need satisfaction and negatively with need frustration. Increasing challenge job demands was positively associated with need satisfaction, which, in turn, was associated with higher work-related well-being. In addition, crafting structural job resources was directly positively linked to burnout as well as work engagement. Moreover, we found that decreasing hindrance demands was positively associated with burnout and negatively associated with work engagement via need frustration. No associations were found between crafting social resources, indicators of basic psychological needs, or work-related well-being. These findings provide insights into how principals determine their own basic psychological needs via job crafting, and how this is reflected in their work-related well-being. The study advances job crafting theory and self-determination theory, with important implications for practice and future research.     

Recovery experiences as moderators between psychosocial work characteristics and occupational well-being

Abstract

This study examined the direct and moderator roles of recovery experiences (psychological detachment from work, relaxation, mastery, and control) in the relationship between psychosocial work characteristics (i.e. time demands, job control, and justice of the supervisor) and occupational well-being (need for recovery, job exhaustion, and work engagement). The study was conducted among 527 Finnish employees from several occupational sectors who were employed in a variety of different jobs. Of the employees, 53% were women and the average age was 42.4 years. The moderated hierarchical regression analyses showed that psychological detachment and mastery were protective mechanisms against increased need for recovery in a situation of lack of job control. Also, relaxation protected against increased job exhaustion under high time demands. In addition, recovery experiences – psychological detachment and mastery in particular – had direct links to occupational well-being. Altogether, the study findings suggest that recovery experiences play a significant role in maintaining well-being at work.     

Trajectories of effort-reward imbalance in Swedish workers: Differences in demographic and work-related factors and associations with health

ABSTRACT

The aim of the study was to identify trajectories of effort-reward imbalance (ERI), to examine these with respect to demographic (age, gender, socio-economic position) and work-related (employment contract, work hours, shift work, sector) factors, and to investigate associations with different health indicators (self-rated health, depressive symptoms, migraine, sickness absence). The study used four waves of data (N?=?6702), collected biennially within the Swedish Longitudinal Occupational Survey of Health (SLOSH). Using latent class growth modelling, we identified four trajectories: a stable low imbalance trajectory, which comprised 90% of all participants, and three change trajectories including a decreasing trajectory (4% of the participants), an inverted U-shaped trajectory and an increasing imbalance trajectory, both in 3% of the participants. Results indicate that a sizeable proportion of Swedish employees’ experience imbalance between efforts and rewards at work. The most favourable trajectory comprised relatively more men and was characterised by better work-related characteristics than the less favourable ERI trajectories. All change trajectories were dominated by women and employees in the public sector. Health developments followed ERI trajectories, such that less favourable trajectories associated with impaired health and more favourable trajectories associated with better health. Sickness absence increased among all ERI trajectories, most so for the decreasing and increasing ERI trajectory.     

The longitudinal development of employee well-being: a systematic review

This article reports a systematic review of findings on the long-term development of employee well-being, taking into account the effects of time lag, age, and job change. High-quality quantitative empirical studies focusing on employee affective well-being based on the circumplex model and utilizing measurements at more than two points in time were searched from eight databases. The systematic analysis of the 40 studies revealed that the level of employee well-being was generally high but not fixed – instead changes in mean levels over time were typical. In addition, the stability of well-being was found to be relatively low, as the explained variances were below 50%. Age and change of job were the major factors influencing stability: younger employees and job changers tended to display larger across time changes in well-being than older employees and job stayers, both at the mean level and in terms of their position relative to others. The findings of this review suggest that the indicators of employee affective well-being studied here (i.e. burnout, engagement, and job satisfaction) can meaningfully be applied in future research in measuring changes in employees’ well-being. In conclusion, based on the designs, methodologies, and main findings of the reviewed studies, seven avenues for future longitudinal research on employee well-being are proposed.     

The importance of context specificity in work stress research: A test of the Demand-Control-Support model in academics

The Demand-Control (D-C) (Karasek, 1979) and the Demand-Control-Support (D-C-S) (Johnson & Hall, 1988; Johnson, Hall, & Theorell, 1989; Karasek & Theorell, 1990) models of work stress suggest that jobs with high demands and low control (and low support) are stressful. In line with the support in the literature for context-specificity in occupational stress research (Sparks & Cooper, 1999) and the limited and even contradictory support for interaction effects, the main aim of the present study was to examine how the D-C-S model applied in a well-defined occupational group. Using hierarchical regression analyses, and controlling for negative affect, the D-C-S model accounted for 26%, 6%, and 8% of the variance in job satisfaction, psychological distress and burnout, respectively, among 166 academics in a UK university. No two-way or three-way interactive effects were evident, but additive effects of job demands and control on psychological well-being and of job demands and support on both burnout and job satisfaction were shown, corroborating research showing that high job strain is linked to ill health and job dissatisfaction in this homogenous occupational sample. It is recommended that, in future, research includes more variables that are specific to a particular occupation.     

The importance of context specificity in work stress research: A test of the Demand-Control-Support model in academics

Abstract

The Demand-Control (D-C) (Karasek, 1979) and the Demand-Control-Support (D-C-S) (Johnson & Hall, 1988; Johnson, Hall, & Theorell, 1989; Karasek & Theorell, 1990) models of work stress suggest that jobs with high demands and low control (and low support) are stressful. In line with the support in the literature for context-specificity in occupational stress research (Sparks & Cooper, 1999) and the limited and even contradictory support for interaction effects, the main aim of the present study was to examine how the D-C-S model applied in a well-defined occupational group. Using hierarchical regression analyses, and controlling for negative affect, the D-C-S model accounted for 26%, 6%, and 8% of the variance in job satisfaction, psychological distress and burnout, respectively, among 166 academics in a UK university. No two-way or three-way interactive effects were evident, but additive effects of job demands and control on psychological well-being and of job demands and support on both burnout and job satisfaction were shown, corroborating research showing that high job strain is linked to ill health and job dissatisfaction in this homogenous occupational sample. It is recommended that, in future, research includes more variables that are specific to a particular occupation.     

The Copenhagen Burnout Inventory: A new tool for the assessment of burnout

So far, the large majority of studies on burnout in the international literature have employed the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). In this paper we criticize the MBI on a number of points and present a new tool for the measurement of burnout: the Copenhagen Burnout Inventory (CBI). The CBI consists of three scales measuring personal burnout, work-related burnout, and client-related burnout, for use in different domains. On the basis of an ongoing prospective study of burnout in employees in the human service sector, the PUMA study (Project on Burnout, Motivation and Job Satisfaction; N=1914 at baseline), we analysed the validity and reliability of the CBI. All three scales were found to have very high internal reliability, and non-response rates were small. The scales differentiated well between occupational groups in the human service sector, and the expected pattern with regard to correlations with other measures of fatigue and psychological well-being was found. Furthermore, the three scales predicted future sickness absence, sleep problems, use of pain-killers, and intention to quit. Analyses of changes over time showed that substantial proportions of the employees changed with regard to burnout levels. It is concluded that the analyses indicate very satisfactory reliability and validity for the CBI instrument. The CBI is being used in a number of countries and translations into eight languages are available.     

The effects of JDC model on burnout and work engagement: A multiple interaction analysis

This study investigated the moderating effects of functional social support (emotional and instrumental support) on the relationship of job demand control with burnout and work engagement. In total, 297 frontline employees from a hotpot restaurant franchise in China were surveyed. The results indicated emotional support, such as caring and inspiration, mitigated the adverse effects of high demand/low control on burnout and work engagement. Instrumental support, such as giving suggestions and solving problems, only mitigated the adverse effects of burnout. Further, the high demand/low control/low emotional support work condition was the most unfavourable for work engagement and burnout; while high demand/low control/low instrumental support was the most unfavourable condition for burnout. The theoretical and managerial implications of this research have been provided to gain a deeper insight into functional social support in the job demand control model.     

The Japanese version of the Effort-Reward Imbalance Questionnaire: a study in dental technicians

To test the psychometric properties and criterion validity of the Japanese version of the EffortReward Imbalance (ERI) Questionnaire (Siegrist, 1996), a survey was conducted among 105 male dental technicians. The Japanese version of the questionnaire was developed through a backtranslation process. Internal consistency and factorial structure were tested and the criterion validity with respect to musculoskeletal symptoms was estimated with the help of a correlation matrix and logistic regression analysis. In psychometric terms, the factorial structure of the scales measuring the components of the theoretical concept was replicated satisfactorily, and internal consistencies of the scales measuring the extrinsic and intrinsic components of the model were appropriate. Significant associations between components of the ERI and musculoskeletal symptoms were found. Logistic regression analysis revealed a significantly elevated risk of musculoskeletal symptoms in participants scoring high on the scale measuring the model's intrinsic component, 'overcommitment'. This study indicates that, at least for the occupational group under study, the Japanese version of the ERI Questionnaire is a feasible and psychometrically well justified new measure for assessing psychosocial stress at work with relevance to health.     

The Japanese version of the Effort-Reward Imbalance Questionnaire: A study in dental technicians

To test the psychometric properties and criterion validity of the Japanese version of the EffortReward Imbalance (ERI) Questionnaire (Siegrist, 1996), a survey was conducted among 105 male dental technicians. The Japanese version of the questionnaire was developed through a backtranslation process. Internal consistency and factorial structure were tested and the criterion validity with respect to musculoskeletal symptoms was estimated with the help of a correlation matrix and logistic regression analysis. In psychometric terms, the factorial structure of the scales measuring the components of the theoretical concept was replicated satisfactorily, and internal consistencies of the scales measuring the extrinsic and intrinsic components of the model were appropriate. Significant associations between components of the ERI and musculoskeletal symptoms were found. Logistic regression analysis revealed a significantly elevated risk of musculoskeletal symptoms in participants scoring high on the scale measuring the model's intrinsic component, 'overcommitment'. This study indicates that, at least for the occupational group under study, the Japanese version of the ERI Questionnaire is a feasible and psychometrically well justified new measure for assessing psychosocial stress at work with relevance to health.     

Health and well-being of older workers: comparing their associations with effort–reward imbalance and Pressure,Disorganisation and Regulatory Failure

Work organisation has well-established associations with health. This study compares the associations of Pressure, Disorganisation and Regulatory Failure (PDR) and effort–reward imbalance (ERI) with health and well-being among older workers. Participants were 714 Australian workers aged 45–65 (56.3% female), with a mean age of 54.6 years (SD = 5.0) and a mean of 34.7 working hours per week (SD = 13.9). Hierarchical regression analyses tested the strengths of the associations of both ERI and PDR with work–life conflict and mental health. Independent variables were entered in blocks: demographic characteristics (age and gender), working hours and then ERI or PDR (measured using the four subscales: financial pressure, reward pressure, disorganisation and regulatory failure). Compared to ERI, the PDR subscales collectively accounted for slightly less variance in work–life conflict and slightly more variance in mental health. The PDR subscales also accounted for extra variance in both dependent variables when ERI was included in the model. These findings indicate that PDR is a promising construct that includes elements of work organisation not addressed by ERI.     

Burnout and impaired cognitive functioning: The role of executive control in the performance of cognitive tasks

Abstract

Burnout patients often report deficits in cognitive control, and there is a need to understand the processes involved. Drawing on recent findings, we hypothesized that emotional exhaustion and task-related demands on executive control would interact in predicting performance in tasks requiring the updating and monitoring of working memory as well as the inhibition of prepotent (dominant or automatic) responses. In accordance with recent conceptualizations of burnout, we focused on emotional exhaustion as the core symptom of burnout. The sample comprised 81 employees recruited from nursing homes for elderly care in Germany, who participated in a laboratory study involving cognitive tasks. Based on a median split, participants were divided into two groups: those with high burnout and those with low burnout. In line with our hypotheses, the high exhaustion participants performed less well than those with low exhaustion only when tasks put high demands on their executive control. As predicted, high levels of emotional exhaustion were associated with more errors and longer reaction times when demands on executive control were high, whereas no performance differences were found when both tasks put low demands on executive control. The implications for practice are discussed.     

Work motivation,organisational identification,and well-being in call centre work

Abstract

Previous work has not considered the interplay of motivational forces linked to the task with those linked to the social identity of employees. The aim of the present study is to combine these approaches. Two studies with call centre agents (N=211, N=161) were conducted in which the relationships of objective working conditions (e.g., inbound vs. outbound work), subjective measures of motivating potential of work, and organisational identification were analysed. Job satisfaction, turnover intentions, organisational citizenship behavior (OCB), health complaints, and burnout were assessed as indicators of the agents’ work motivation and well-being. In both studies it was found that objective working conditions substantially correlated with subjective measures of work motivation. Moreover, employees experiencing a high motivating potential at work reported more OCB, higher job satisfaction, and less turnover intentions. As hypothesized, organisational identification was a further independent predictor of job satisfaction, turnover intentions, OCB, and well-being. Highly organisationally identified employees report higher work motivation and more well-being. Additionally, interactions between the motivating potential and organisational identification were found. However, all the results indicate that interventions seeking to enhance work motivation and well-being in call centres should improve both the motivating potential of the job and organisational identification. These two factors combined in an additive way across both studies.     

Using computerized ambulatory diaries for the assessment of job characteristics and work-related stress in nurses

Abstract

Much research into work-related stress is based on retrospective self-reports, whereas records made at the time could be more valuable. In this study the primary components of two models of work stress, Karasek's demand-control (DC) model and Siegrist's effort-reward imbalance (ERI), were assessed in trained nurses using ambulatory diaries and traditional questionnaire methods. The diaries were entered on small hand-held computers and the method used has been termed ecological momentary assessment (EMA), in which recordings are made in real time in the working environment. The participants were 36 nurses who completed standardized questionnaires evaluating ERI, strain (from DC model), and, over three shifts, computerized behavioural diaries that measured effort-demand, control, reward, and stress every 90 minutes on average, enabling determination of strain and ERI repeatedly in the work situation. A total of 674 observations were recorded. Using multilevel linear modelling, it was found that the questionnaire and computerized diary derived measures of strain (DC) and ERI were reliably correlated. In addition, the ambulatory measures of both strain (DC) and ERI correlated with ratings of stress taken at the same time. From this study it would appear that ambulatory diaries could be a powerful and flexible way of assessing work related stress and its putative determinants in a real life work setting.     

Work motivation, organisational identification, and well-being in call centre work

Previous work has not considered the interplay of motivational forces linked to the task with those linked to the social identity of employees. The aim of the present study is to combine these approaches. Two studies with call centre agents (N=211, N=161) were conducted in which the relationships of objective working conditions (e.g., inbound vs. outbound work), subjective measures of motivating potential of work, and organisational identification were analysed. Job satisfaction, turnover intentions, organisational citizenship behavior (OCB), health complaints, and burnout were assessed as indicators of the agents' work motivation and well-being. In both studies it was found that objective working conditions substantially correlated with subjective measures of work motivation. Moreover, employees experiencing a high motivating potential at work reported more OCB, higher job satisfaction, and less turnover intentions. As hypothesized, organisational identification was a further independent predictor of job satisfaction, turnover intentions, OCB, and well-being. Highly organisationally identified employees report higher work motivation and more well-being. Additionally, interactions between the motivating potential and organisational identification were found. However, all the results indicate that interventions seeking to enhance work motivation and well-being in call centres should improve both the motivating potential of the job and organisational identification. These two factors combined in an additive way across both studies.     

Self-help for stress and burnout without therapist contact: An online randomised controlled trial

Interventions designed to reduce stress and burnout may be costly and access is limited. This study examined the effectiveness of a self-help book, using Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) to target stress and burnout in a randomised controlled online trial without any therapist contact. Participants were recruited through a newsletter of a health insurance company. Participants (N?=?119) who reported at least moderate levels of stress were randomly assigned to an immediate intervention (n?=?61) or a waitlist group (n?=?58). Measures before and after the intervention assessed stress, burnout (primary outcomes), depression, well-being, emotion regulation (secondary outcomes) and ACT-specific constructs. Compared to the waitlist group, participants in the immediate intervention group reported lower stress and burnout and higher psychological flexibility at post-assessment. Effects between groups were large for stress (d?=?0.9), moderate to large for burnout (d?=?0.5–0.8) and large for psychological flexibility (d?=?0.8). All primary and most secondary outcomes and ACT processes continued to improve in the 3-month-follow-up period. Results suggest that an ACT self-help book without any therapist contact is effective in reducing stress and burnout for various occupations. Thus, it may provide a cost-effective public health intervention for reducing stress and burnout.     

The association between job skill discretion,decision authority and burnout

This paper reports on the relationship between dimensions of control (skill discretion and decision authority) and burnout (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment) among 164 human service workers. It examines the differential influence of job demands, control (skill discretion and decision authority) and social support (supervisor, co-workers, others) on each burnout dimension. Then it examines the moderating effects of higher skill discretion, higher decision authority, and higher social support on burnout. Low skill discretion was found to be associated with high emotional exhaustion and depersonalization and low personal accomplishment. The effects of decision authority were not statistically significant. High job demands were associated with high emotional exhaustion only. Social support (supervisor, co-worker, and others) was not associated with burnout when demographic variables and job characteristics were controlled for. Neither dimension of control moderated the impact of high job demands on burnout. Social support did not moderate the impact of high demands, low skill discretion, or low decision authority on any burnout dimension. The full model explained 44% of the variance in emotional exhaustion, 25% in depersonalization, and 42% in personal accomplishment. Despite its limitations, the study suggests that the Job Demand-Control model may provide a useful theoretical foundation for the study of burnout, but that the control dimensions need to be evaluated independently since they appear to be differentially related to the burnout dimensions.     

Using computerized ambulatory diaries for the assessment of job characteristics and work-related stress in nurses

Much research into work-related stress is based on retrospective self-reports, whereas records made at the time could be more valuable. In this study the primary components of two models of work stress, Karasek's demand-control (DC) model and Siegrist's effort-reward imbalance (ERI), were assessed in trained nurses using ambulatory diaries and traditional questionnaire methods. The diaries were entered on small hand-held computers and the method used has been termed ecological momentary assessment (EMA), in which recordings are made in real time in the working environment. The participants were 36 nurses who completed standardized questionnaires evaluating ERI, strain (from DC model), and, over three shifts, computerized behavioural diaries that measured effort-demand, control, reward, and stress every 90 minutes on average, enabling determination of strain and ERI repeatedly in the work situation. A total of 674 observations were recorded. Using multilevel linear modelling, it was found that the questionnaire and computerized diary derived measures of strain (DC) and ERI were reliably correlated. In addition, the ambulatory measures of both strain (DC) and ERI correlated with ratings of stress taken at the same time. From this study it would appear that ambulatory diaries could be a powerful and flexible way of assessing work related stress and its putative determinants in a real life work setting.     

Patterns of conflict and enrichment in work-family balance: A three-dimensional typology

Abstract

A four-dimensional typology of work-family balance (WFB) that has previously been reported was tested in four samples: Finnish nurses (n=662), Slovenian nurses (n=667), Finnish health and social care workers (n=1493) and Finnish service sector employees (n=827). Latent profile analyses identified three rather than four types of WFB in each sample. In line with the four-dimensional typology, a Beneficial type (56% to 70% of the participants), experiencing high work-to-family and family-to-work enrichment (WFE and FWE) and low work-to-family and family-to-work conflict (WFC and FWC), and an Active type (15% to 20%), experiencing high WFC, FWC, WFE and FWE, emerged; however, the Harmful and Passive types were not identified. Instead, a Contradictory type (16% to 53%), experiencing high WFC and low WFE in combination with low FWC and high FWE, was found. The Beneficial type showed higher subjective well-being than the Contradictory and Active types, the latter showing higher vigour at work but also higher psychological strain and lower life satisfaction than the Contradictory type. These findings support the view that WFB is not a single state or continuum, but manifests itself in diverse combinations of WFC, FWC, WFE and FWE.     

Information Specificity and Hazard Risk Potential as Moderators of Trust Asymmetry

Trust in risk managers appears to be an important antecedent of public acceptance for many hazards. However, such trust may be fragile since research suggests that negative performance information has a greater impact than positive performance information (Slovic, 1993). Closer examination of these findings suggests two potential moderators of this valence-related asymmetry-information specificity and hazard risk potential. First, we predicted that the asymmetry would be less evident for low versus high specificity information (risk management policies vs. concrete events). Second, we predicted that it would also be less evident for a low- versus high-risk hazard (pharmaceutical vs. nuclear industry). Study 1 reanalyzed Slovic's original trust asymmetry data for the nuclear industry. In line with Prediction 1, trust asymmetry was less evident for policy than event-related information. Using a new set of items with more clearly defined levels of specificity, Study 2 replicated and extended these findings for the high-risk hazard (nuclear power). In line with Prediction 2, trust asymmetry was even less evident for the low-risk hazard (pharmaceuticals). Positive policies in this industry actually had a greater impact on trust than negative ones, in contrast to previous findings. Results support an information diagnosticity account of earlier findings and suggest that trust in risk managers may be more robust than previously believed.