中国产业职业性别隔离的检验与分析

文章从男女性别收入不平等问题出发,阐明了研究中国产业性别隔离问题的重要性,并以此为基点,探讨了与职业隔离相关的概念,介绍职业性别隔离的两种测度方法,即邓肯指数与平方根指数。文章应用中国历年劳动统计年鉴和2000年人口普查数据,对中国产业职业别隔离状况进行检验与分析,重点对平方根指数进行测度,得出相关的结论。结果表明,从总体上看,中国职业性别隔离程度较低,但产业内部的职业性别隔离程度较大,并且在不同产业内还有继续扩大的趋势。同时,不同地区的产业职业性别隔离也不尽相同。这些基本结论对中国制定相应的政策以推进男女平等有着重要的意义。     

中国城镇地区职业性别隔离水平的趋势分析

在劳动力市场中职业性别隔离水平是衡量男女平等的重要指标之一。本文基于2000年和2010年全国人口普查数据,分别从总体隔离、水平隔离与垂直隔离、性别类型职业等几个方面对中国劳动力市场上的职业性别隔离水平的发展趋势和现状进行估计和分析,并进一步比较不同行业和地区职业性别隔离水平的差异。研究发现2000年以来中国城镇地区的职业性别隔离总体水平下降趋势明显。职业间的性别分布变化显著,表现为一方面女性不断向管理层、技术层的职业领域扩张。虽然男性仍在"单位负责人"和"专业技术人员"等具有高权威和高声望的职业中具有明显优势,但是女性在这些职业中的从业比例大幅上升。后者表明提高女性受教育程度仍是降低职业性别隔离水平的重要途径;另一方面从农副业人员中解放出的女性主要向商业服务业人员转移,而男性则主要向产业工人转移。这一变化可能是由性别的自然禀赋差异所导致的社会分工不同,而并非受劳动力市场歧视的影响。职业内的性别隔离程度普遍下降,虽然"男性职业"近1/3,"女性职业"几乎不存在,但是女性在各个职业种类中的分布比例基本上均有不同程度的提高。我国各个省份的职业性别隔离水平差异较大,中部地区最低,东部地区整体偏高,而西部地区的职业隔离水平则呈现出两极分化。     

基于职业性别隔离的女性就业创业问题研究--以成都市为例

女性就业是女性发展的基本内容，是女性获得经济独立并赢得社会性别平等的重要渠道。城镇居民就业普遍存在职业性别隔离且在水平与垂直方向均有所表现，女性职业（行业）普遍收入偏低，大量女性沉淀在职级较低岗位。文章以第六次人口普查数据为基础，统计了成都市30个服务行业与30个制造行业女性劳动力占所在行业的比例和女性就业结构构成，结合成都市人力资源市场岗位供给与求职需求分析，提出女性就业创业引导方向。     

性别工资差异与工资歧视--基于RIF回归的分解方法

文章采用2012年中国劳动力动态调查数据，利用基于 RIF 回归的分解方法分析性别工资差异，并对各收入分位数上的性别歧视程度进行估量和分解。研究发现：随着收入分位数的提高，特征效应对性别收入差距解释的比重逐渐提高；系数效应带来的性别歧视对性别收入差距解释的比重不断下降，但系数效应依然是造成劳动力性别收入差距的主要原因。教育在消减性别收入差距上的作用减弱，而职业资格、掌握技能耗时、职业性别隔离和签订劳动合同等变量则有助于缩小性别收入差距。     

中国劳动力市场中的性别收入差异:一个社会资本的解释

在当前中国劳动力市场中,有关性别工资收入差异的诸多传统理论解释均遇到了一定程度的挑战。基于社会资本的理论视角,文章运用2009年中国八大城市社会网络与职业经历调查数据(JSnet2009),对性别收入差异议题进行再检验。在阐释了社会资本影响性别收入差异的机制后,文章进一步分解了社会资本对性别收入差异的贡献额。Oaxaca-Blinder分解显示,女性的社会资本欠缺,可解释性别收入差异的12.7%,占总解释量的70%以上;分位数回归分解进一步显示,在中高收入群体中,社会资本的性别差异更大,对性别收入差距的贡献更高,并且女性劳动者的社会资本回报率也显著低于男性;另外,女性在社会资本上欠缺还是导致职业性别隔离现象的重要原因。     

劳动力市场的职业隔离——基于浙江省的分析

本文运用2000年浙江省人口普查数据,结合浙江省第二次农业普查资料,从职业隔离的角度验证了浙江劳动力市场存在城乡分割与地域分割,其中职业获得的城乡分割表现在农业与非农户口劳动力之间,而地域分割主要表现在省外与省内劳动力之间;非农本地劳动力与其他五类劳动力之间存在具有"分割梯度效应"的职业隔离。     

农村劳动力流动减贫效应的实证研究——基于甘肃省农户的调查

农村劳动力流动和转移是农村反贫困的重要路径之一,对缓解农村贫困有重要的作用。本文以甘肃省1 749个农户的调研数据为研究样本,在描述性统计分析的基础之上提出关于劳动力流动和贫困之间关系的四个假设。针对提出的假设,本文采用Double-log模型对农户收入进行弹性分析,发现农户家庭外出务工劳动力对农户家庭人均收入有显著的正向作用,进一步应用Probit模型对影响农户家庭劳动力流动的因素进行回归分析,发现外出劳动力的年龄、性别、职业、受教育程度、健康状况及工作地点和主要技能等对劳动力流动有重要的直接影响且间接地影响家庭的贫困状况,进而直接或间接地对所提出的假设进行了证明。劳动力流动与贫困之间存在双向关系,务工收入是农户家庭的主要收入来源。因此,劳动力流动对于减少农村贫困发生率,促进农业生产要素的合理配置和缓解农村生态贫困等都有积极作用。     

工作转换对农民工职业流动的影响效应

农民工就业流动频繁已经成为当前劳动力市场的普遍现象和重要特征，而工作转换能否带来农民工职业向上流动，实现职业地位提升？文章采用RUMIC面板数据，进一步估计工作转换对农民工职业流动方向的影响。结果发现：工作转换对职业流动产生显著负效应，工作转换导致农民工职业向下流动，职业流动没有呈现“U”型特征，但存在一定的跨期效应，重新定义工作转换进行稳健性检验仍然支持这一结论。而从根本上消除劳动力市场的制度壁垒，强化农民工职业技能培训，无疑是未来劳动力市场政策调整的主要方向。     

教育与城镇妇女就业相关性分析

本文通过对问卷调查数据分析 ,说明教育对提高女性劳动者素质和竞争力 ,提高就业层次 ,增加她们的收入的重要作用 ;探讨了就业领域中仍然存在的性别隔离现象 ;用调查数据说明妇女受教育程度与妇女就业意识、选择就业的态度和方式、控制劳动力供给的数量、职业流动的水平以及对自身社会处境的判断和期望的高低的相关性     

过度教育的发生率及政策启示研究——基于北京市数据的分析

本文使用2008年北京市调查数据分别采用自我评估法和众数法从性别、职业、行业、所有制层次对过度教育进行了测算,发现与欧美国家相比,我国过度教育发生率整体上偏高。从劳动力市场分割理论分析认为,劳动力市场存有明显地分割是引致一些地区、职业、行业等内人力资本过度集中的重要原因。对于整体上还处于教育不足的我国而言,转变经济发展方式,鼓励技术创新、深化社会主义市场化改革,降低劳动力流动成本是解决过度教育的根本出路。     

Rethinking gender segregation and gender inequality: Measures and meanings

It is often assumed that occupational segregation by gender is readily interpretable as an index of inequality between men and women in the labor force. Although this view has been challenged, the development and dissemination of analytic tools that could test this assumption have been limited. This article reviews two methods for identifying invidious and noninvidious components of gender segregation and develops a third approach that overcomes some limitations of the other two. Each method is applied to a data set that consists of observations from 22 countries covered in the International Social Survey Program. The results are compared and contrasted, and several conclusions emerge. First, occupational segregation is not completely interpretable as occupational gender inequality. Second, the methods differ in how large they estimate the invidious (vertical) component to be. Third, each method produces measures of invidious and noninvidious segregation that can be predicted statistically from other characteristics of the countries in question. The article ends with suggestions about the circumstances under which the various approaches may be the most useful.     

Dimensions of Gender Occupational Differentiation in Segregation and Inequality: A Cross-National Analysis

The present research: (a) distinguishes between measures of gender occupational segregation and measures of gender occupational inequality, and (b) examines whether occupational segregation and occupational inequality are differentially related to structural characteristics of national labor markets. Analysis of data from 56 nations shows that measures of nominal segregation are not equivalent to measures of hierarchical inequality. Nominal segregation seems to increase with industrialization and in the presence of service industries but decreases as female labor force participation increases. By contrast, occupational inequality seems to decrease with industrialization and in the presence of service industries but to increase as both female labor force participation and level of educational inequality rise. The data further demonstrate that nominal segregation and ordinal status inequality are interrelated. Where nominal segregation is high, women's relative representation in high status occupations tends to rise. We argue that occupational segregation should not be equated with occupational inequality, and that theoretical propositions regarding gender-occupational segregation may not be applicable to issues concerning occupational inequality. We obtain a better understanding of, and insight into the nature of gender-occupational differentiation by simultaneously considering these two dimensions of gender-occupational differentiation.     

Gender Segregation in the Spanish Labor Market: An Alternative Approach

The aim of this paper is to study occupational segregation by gender in Spain, which is a country where occupational segregation explains a large part of the gender wage gap. As opposed to previous studies, this paper measures not only overall segregation, but also the segregation of several population subgroups. For this purpose, this paper uses new measures recently proposed by Alonso-Villar and Del Río ( Local versus overall segregation measures, Documento de Traballo 0802, Departamento de Economía Aplicada, Universidade de Vigo, 2008). Moreover, two decompositions of their local segregation curves are proposed, which allows us to go further in the empirical analysis.     

Occupational segregation and the gender wage gap

The role of occupational segregation in the determination of gender wage differentials is assessed. It is found (1) that occupational segregation plays less of a role in explaining wage differentials than do traditional human capital variables; (2) that earnings profiles generated with data that include a percent female (PF) measure of occupational segregation are not ideal for testing human capital predictions yet nonetheless yield parameters consistent with neoclassical theory; and (3) that lifetime work considerations, such as the degree of one's labor force intermittency, are important in determining both one's occupation and wage. The implications are that government antidiscrimination policies based on outcome measures are in general inefficient. Instead, the government should concentrate on creating incentives for women to participate in the labor market on an equal basis as males.     

Segregation and Social Welfare: A Methodological Proposal with an Application to the U.S.

The aim of this paper is twofold: (a) to define a new concept, the welfare loss that a society experiences due to the segregation of the demographic groups that comprise it and (b) to propose measures that quantify this phenomenon satisfying a set of normative properties. In aggregating the well-being losses (gains) of the groups derived for being concentrated in low-status (high-status) organizational units, this paper embraces the distributive approach adopted in the literature on economic deprivation and poverty. The advantages of these measures are shown by exploring the welfare losses that the United States has experienced from 1980 to 2012 due to occupational segregation by both gender and race/ethnicity. Our analysis shows that our measures reveal certain aspects of the phenomenon that do not emerge when using overall segregation measures. Thus, for example, while nothing seems to have changed in U.S. labor market in the last decade according to some well-known overall segregation measures, the social welfare loss due to segregation has actually increased.     

Rethinking the Two-Body Problem: The Segregation of Women Into Geographically Dispersed Occupations

Empirical research on the family cites the tendency for couples to relocate for husbands’ careers as evidence against the gender neutrality of household economic decisions. For these studies, occupational segregation is a concern because occupations are not random by sex and mobility is not random by occupation. I find that the tendency for households to relocate for husbands’ careers is better explained by the segregation of women into geographically dispersed occupations rather than by the direct prioritization of men’s careers. Among never-married workers, women relocate for work less often than men, and the gender effect disappears after occupational segregation is accounted for. Although most two-earner families feature husbands in geographically clustered jobs involving frequent relocation for work, families are no less likely to relocate for work when it belongs to the wife. I conclude that future research in household mobility should treat occupational segregation occurring prior to marriage rather than gender bias within married couples as the primary explanation for the prioritization of husbands’ careers in household mobility decisions.     

Measuring the occupational segregation of Australia's indigenous workforce: A census-based analysis

This purpose of this paper is to describe the occupational status of Australia's indigenous population and measure the extent to which this differs from that of all other Australians. For this purpose, inter- and intra-occupational segregation indexes are calculated using 1986 Census data. This reveals for the first time the precise occupational mix which characterises the indigenous workforce. At the broad level of major occupations, there is some indication that the degree of employment segregation between indigenous and other Australians has decreased over time, although the lack of time series data based on consistent occupational classification renders this analysis inconclusive. At the more disaggregated occupational unit level, clear patterns of relative employment concentration and exclusion in particular occupations are in evidence with gender as a major differentiating factor. Australian Standard Classification of Occupations (ASCO)-linked occupational prestige scores are applied to the employment distributions as a basis for comparing socioeconomic status.     

Gender-Based Occupational Segregation and Sex Differences in Sensory,Motor, and Spatial Aptitudes

Research on sex differences in humans documents gender differences in sensory, motor, and spatial aptitudes. These aptitudes, as captured by Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) codes, predict the occupational choices of men and women in the directions indicated by this research. We simulate that eliminating selection on these skills reduces the Duncan index of gender-based occupational segregation by 20 % to 23 % in 1970 and 2012, respectively. Eliminating selection on DOT variables capturing other accounts of this segregation has a smaller impact.     

Revisiting occupational sex segregation in the United States, 1910–1990: Results from a log-linear approach

I reexamine trends in the strength and structure of occupational sex segregation in the United States from 1910 to 1990. Log-multiplicative models show significant change in the association between gender and occupation. Contrary to conventional characterizations, a substantial proportion of this change occurred before 1970. Likewise, a margin-free index shows more integration over the century than do conventional indices. These discrepancies arise from occupation-specific variations in the trajectory of sex segregation: Highly segregated occupations were especially likely to integrate between 1930 and 1940. I identify regions of the occupational structure and pivotal periods in which shifts in segregation occurred and compare these results with conventional historical accounts.