分类控制:当前中国大陆国家与社会关系研究

本文对当前中国大陆的国家与社会关系进行了实证研究。通过考察国家对多种社会组织的实际控制,提出了“分类控制体系”。在这一体系中,政府为了自身利益,根据社会组织的挑战能力和提供的公共物品,对不同的社会组织采取不同的控制策略。这是一套国家利用“非政府方式”,在新的经济环境中,对社会实行全面控制、为社会提供公物品的新体制。通过与其他国家及社会关系类型的比较,文章指出,分类控制体系是一种新的国家与社会关系的“理想类型”。     

论我国政府与非政府组织关系模式选择

近年来,我国非政府组织发展迅速,作为社会治理的多元主体之一,其凭借独特优势在政府对社会治理过程中逐渐发挥出越来越重要的作用。然而,目前我国非政府组织自身发展以及在社会治理方面与政府的行为模式研究才刚刚起步,需要在发展过程中不断进行总结和反思,结合我国的实际,探索出一套有利于我国非政府组织参与社会治理的模式结构。本文首先对非政府组织以及政府与非政府组织关系的现状进行简要论述,结合实际,指出我国非政府组织与政府间应该建立一种互助合作的关系模式。其次,分析了我国非政府组织与政府合作关系模式构建面临的困难,最后提出了构建我国非政府组织与政府合作关系模式的对策。     

非政府组织的组织扩展

所谓非政府组织(Non-Governmental Organizations,即NGO.)是当今国际上的一种通行说法,一般指那些非政府的、非营利性的、致力于公益事业的社会中介组织,80年代以来,非政府组织在全球范围的发展很快,在世界社会经济和政治生活中的作用越来越大.非政府组织广泛参与可持续发展的各个领域里的活动,如扶贫、计划生育、妇女儿童保护、教育.卫生保健、农村发展、环境保护、人道主义救援以及人权保障等.目前,大多数国家的政府、各重要的政府间国际组织都将非政府组织当作社会经济发展活动中的合作伙伴,其中有很多已作出了相应的法律和制度上的安排.随着我国从传统的计划体制向社会主义市场经济体制过渡,以往由政府包办的大量社会工作将要转而由民间社会组织承担,民间的非营利性的志愿性的社会中介组织势必成为我国社会工作的重要载体和承担者.所以,借鉴世界各国非政府组织扩展的经验,对我国如何在市场经济条件下开展社会工作具有重要意义.本文阐述非政府组织的组织扩展问题,即非政府组织在建立之后,如何通过组织的扩展更好地实现其使命.     

非政府组织的基本功能及其保障途径

非政府组织的存在是对政府的一个良好补充,起到了政府与社会公众之间进行沟通的桥梁作用,并且承担了一部分政府职能,有力地助推了政府向着高效、精简的服务型政府转变。因此,应当充分认识和挖掘非政府组织的基本功能并研究保障其功能实现的有效方法。     

我国非政府组织参与公共危机治理的路径分析

愈加复杂化的社会环境使得公共危机出现常态化发展趋向,在政府力量不足以应对的现实情况下引入非政府组织参与公共危机治理成为必然。但是目前我国非政府组织内外环境的不利因素仍制约着其优势的充分发挥,需要通过与政府建立协作伙伴关系、建立并完善法律法规、提高社会参与积极性、充盈非政府组织的人力资源、提升非政府组织的财务管理能力等措施促进我国非政府组织有效地参与公共危机治理。     

中央财政支持社会组织服务意义重大

今年3月，民政部发出通知，指出2012年中央财政安排专项资金2亿元支持社会组织参与社会服务，资助项目类型包括发展示范项目、承接社会服务试点项IJ、社会工作服务示范项目等。资助项目经过申请、评审，现在已经开始实施。这是中国社会组织、社会工作发展史上的一件大事，具有重要的现实和符号意义。长期以来，由政府出资支持社会组织进行社会服务一直是一个问题，这里主要是认识方面的原因，即对社会组织（包括社会工作机构）和社会组织服务（包括社会工作服务）的认识有不正确和滞后的地方。其一，有些人说社会组织是靠社会力量和组织自己的资源开展活动的，与政府资助无关，与政府财政更无关。晓得严重一点，政府财政支持社会组织差不多被认为是国有资产流失。其二，把社会组织理解为“非政府”组织，而“非政府”组织就有点与政府不一致的味道，既然社会组织是独立于政府之外的，甚至有时还扮演着“压力群体”的角色，当然政府不会支持这种异己的力量。     

非政府组织在约旦民生领域的活动与作用

约旦非政府组织在教育、医疗卫生、救济、减贫与就业等民生领域开展了大量活动。从法团主义的理论视角看,非政府组织在约旦民生领域的活动有三大作用：一是弥补了政府和私营部门公共服务的不足;二是充当约旦政府的伙伴与民生政策在基层的实施者;三是保障基本民生与社会稳定。不过,非政府组织也存在外国捐助机构与外国非政府组织对约旦本地干预、控制和渗透的风险。影响约旦非政府组织在民生领域活动与发挥作用的因素如下：约旦民生状况、约旦政府政策、伊斯兰传统文化和约旦非政府组织自身的短板。总体而言,约旦政府在民生领域起主导作用,非政府组织起辅助作用。从长远来看,约旦政府应当发挥非政府组织的优势并引导其继续在民生领域开展活动,以填补政府在民生领域的不足,但也要严格控制其参与政治活动,警惕外国势力借非政府组织干预约旦国家内政。     

NGO公信力提升路径分析

公信力是一切组织生存和发展的基础，组织的公信力主要体现在对外部的承诺和践诺能力，同时也在于自身对角色及功能的定位和发展。在政府与市场、政府与社会关系中存在着市场失灵和政府失灵，这已是理论界的一大成果，也是非政府组织确定自身作用领域和功能的主要依据。同时，在研究非政府组织的公信力方面，我们必须对其自身的局限性（志愿失灵）进行研究，非政府组织的公信力只有依托其自身的功能和工具才能得到提高。只有明确了非政府组织的作用领域和有效工具，才能有效提高非政府组织的公信力。     

网络社会下公共组织治理模式的探究

网络社会公共组织的治理模式是顺应形势发展的产物,在经济全球化背景下,以政府为主导的公共组织实现信息化是必然的发展趋势。本文着重分析了政府与社会的新互动关系,探究新的公共组织治理模式。     

中东非政府人权组织的特征与挑战

20世纪七十年代末以来,中东地区人权语境逐渐宽松,颁布了各种伊斯兰特色的《人权宣言》,不同层次的人权组织在伊斯兰国家开展活动,这都为中东非政府人权组织的产生提供了理论和组织上的准备。非政府人权组织推动了中东人权观念和人权批判精神的成长,提升了中东各国政府对人权关注程度,并成为国际人权标准内化的重要媒介,缓解了社会内部的对立。"人权依赖综合症"影响到非政府人权组织的特征,人权组织多为社会精英阶层所领导,其活动多限于特定群体和地区。在现代社会,人权组织虽面临诸多挑战,但无疑已成为推动中东政治民主化和人权发展的潜在力量。     

Strategies and tactics in NGO–government relations

Relationships between nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and government agencies have been variously described in the nonprofit literature as cooperative, complementary, adversarial, confrontational, or even co‐optive. But how do NGO–government relationships emerge in practice, and is it possible for NGOs to manage multiple strategies of interaction at once? This article examines the experience of three leading NGOs in Mumbai, India, involved in slum and squatter housing. We investigate how they began relating with government agencies during their formative years and the factors that shaped their interactions. We find that NGOs with similar goals end up using very different strategies and tactics to advance their housing agendas. More significant, we observe that NGOs are likely to employ multiple strategies and tactics in their interactions with government. Finally, we find that an analysis of strategies and tactics can be a helpful vehicle for clarifying an organization's theory of change.     

Positive Interactions and Avoidant and Anxious Representations in Relationships with Parents,Friends, and Romantic Partners

We examined associations between positive interactions and avoidant and anxious representations in relationships with parents, friends, and romantic partners. Two hundred adolescents completed questionnaires, observations, and attachment interviews. From a between‐person perspective, those adolescents with more positive interactions overall had less avoidant representations. Within persons, the more positive interactions were relative to one's own average level in relationships, the less avoidant representations were for that type of relationship. Adolescents were less anxious about a particular type of relationship if they had positive interactions in their other types of relationships. Finally, representations were primarily predicted by interactions in the same type of relationship; interactions in other relationships contributed little. The findings underscore the importance of examining representations of particular types of relationships.     

Face-to-Face Interaction with Government Officials and Its Effects on the Political Attitudes on the Civil Society Organizational Members: The Study from Japan

This study attempts to answer the question: When do civil society organizations (CSOs) function as a bridge between the informal political sphere and the formal political sphere by changing the political attitudes of their members? To answer this question, I used the Japanese General Social Survey 2003 (JGSS 2003). My main findings involve the effect of the face-to-face interactions that the CSO members have with government officials. The findings suggest that while CSO members without such interactions are no more psychologically politically engaged than non-members, the members with such interactions are. The findings have an empirical importance to those who study Japan since the country is currently undergoing CSO–government relationship reform and the number of CSOs is growing rapidly in the recent years. The study also has a theoretical importance to civil society scholars since this study attempts to unfold the mechanism in which CSOs’ positive effects on the members’ political attitudes are produced.     

Exploring the roles of government involvement and institutional environments in the internationalization of Chinese Internet companies

The interactions between government, institutions, and Internet companies have gained attention in the research on the globalization of China’s Internet. However, few studies have been conducted at the company level, and the knowledge about the roles of government and institutions remains limited. Drawing on institutional theory, this empirical study explored the roles and mechanisms of government involvement and the institutional environment in the internationalization of Chinese Internet companies. The results indicated that government involvement could improve these companies’ degree of international breadth through both state ownership and governmental affiliation. However, the results showed that state ownership had a restraining function on their degree of international depth. In the context of institutional transition in China, these effects could vary according to whether Internet companies operate in good or poor institutional environments. By revealing these relationships, this study contributes to both the theoretical and the empirical understanding of governmental influence and institutional roots in the globalization of China’s Internet.     

Retaining the Benefits of Government–Nonprofit Contracting Relationship: Opposites Attract or Clash?

The benefits and negative consequences of government–nonprofit contracting are well documented. From the literature, we know that government and nonprofits can demonstrate contradictory organization-level characteristics. Some argue that these contradictions make government and nonprofits complementary partners, but empirical evidence reveals the potential loss of nonprofit voluntariness. How does one harvest the alleged benefits of the government–nonprofit relationship while minimizing the potential loss of nonprofit voluntariness? Through the qualitative investigation of one nonprofit, this study identifies seven types of organizational-level differences between the government and the nonprofit. These conflicts are manifested by three forms of power struggle. This illuminates that power struggles are the root cause of the potential loss of nonprofits’ voluntariness. The author argues that as long as nonprofits depend on the government for resources, power struggles will persist and voluntariness will be at risk; hence, addressing resource dependence is the key to answering our research question.     

Litigation and political transformation: the case of Russia

This article analyzes some recent developments in the system of public law in the Russian Federation, focusing in particular on changing patterns of litigation and increases in use of administrative law, linked to new acts of legislation. It argues that discussion of the Russian case provides a sociological perspective in which we can understand the importance of legal actions in hybrid polities. It explains that litigation in Russia, even where it may have counter-systemic outcomes, is partly incentivized by the government, as promotion of access to law is seen as a means to formalize interactions between citizens and government and so to extend the societal penetration of the political system more generally. Litigation thus forms a mode of practice that, dialectically, possesses both inner- and counter-systemic status. In addition, the article argues that the case of Russia allows us to comprehend litigation as an element in processes of nation building and social integration more widely, and Russia illuminates the systemic significance of litigation in other societies.     

Migration and Human Rights on the Mexico-Guatemala Border

This paper identifies the protections in place for irregular migrants on the Mexico‐Guatemala border and analyzes Mexican government immigration enforcement policies and levels of compliance with international standards and national law. The history of the Mexico‐Guatemala border region and different types of migration flows into and through the area are also explored, as well as the linkages between migration, trade, security, and US immigration policy. It is argued that the Mexican government has partially complied with international conventions and national laws to protect the human rights of transmigrants in the Guatemalan border region, but that compliance is not complete and that an international response is required to ensure that human rights standards are upheld.     

‘The AISH review is a big joke’: contradictions of policy participation and consultation in a neo‐liberal context

Responsive and appropriate disability policy is ideally developed through the participation of individuals with disabilities. Using a case study methodology, we have examined the policy review process for a disability income programme in Alberta, Canada. We examined questions of participation and consultation and compared individual and agency involvement. Participation was characterized by sustained interactions with government, face‐to‐face collaboration and transparency. Consultation involved short‐term interactions by invitation only, limited input and was more typical in policy construction. In this study individual involvement was more likely to be consultative, while agency involvement was more participatory. In terms of policy outcomes, neither model was more effective. Instead, the government adhered to its original intent, responding in terms of neo‐liberal ideals of independence and autonomy.     

Public expectations of crisis outcomes in the social media era in China: A communication-mediated psychological mechanism

This study theoretically and empirically identifies a new typology of Chinese publics’ normative expectations of crisis outcomes. It classifies the concept into three culturally relevant dimensions—public expectations of (a) organizational accommodative responses (i.e., how an in-crisis organization should respond), (b) punishment of the organization (i.e., how publics collectively should respond), and (c) government intervention (i.e., how government should respond) for desirable crisis outcomes. Using an online survey of the Beijing public, this study investigates the degree to which information seeking and online expression mediate relationships between crisis blame and the three types of expectations. The study finds that as the level of crisis blame increases, active information seekers expect more regarding organizational accommodation and government intervention, whereas active expressers expect stronger punishments of the organization and less government intervention in China.     

The Relationship Among Funding Sources for Art and History Museums

The decline and possible elimination of federal support of the arts in the United States is likely to have a major impact on museum finances. Using data from the 1989 Survey of Museums, we analyze the interactions among major categories of museum funding. The results indicate a strong, positive stimulus of federal funding on private contributions, with some possible displacement of state and local government contributions. The opportunity to generate funds from private sources shows some promise to offset the loss of funds from government sources.