1982-2000：我国非农职业的性别隔离研究

本文利用中国1982年、1990年和2000年人口普查微观数据和详细的职业类别,探索了改革以来我国非农职业性别隔离的水平及其变化趋势,并表明这种变化对劳动力市场中的性别不平等所造成的影响。数据分析结果显示,20世纪80年代,我国非农职业的性别隔离总体水平呈上升趋势;而在90年代,非农职业的性别隔离水平却呈下降趋势。我们认为导致这种非线性变化趋势的原因在于,在不同的历史阶段,影响职业性别隔离的主要因素发生了变化。我们还发现,不同地区、不同职业类型、不同教育程度或户口性质的就业人员,其职业性别间隔离程度有着明显的差异。     

市场转型与职业性别垂直隔离

在社会学研究中,把男女劳动者进入不同职业称之为职业性别的水平隔离,而男女劳动者在同一类职业中从事地位不同的工作,则是职业性别的垂直隔离。本文关注中国市场转型过程中职业性别垂直隔离的趋势。笔者从2009年八大城市调查数据发现：即使在没有性别水平隔离的中性职业中,也同样存在着性别垂直隔离,且市场转型加剧了职业性别垂直隔离程度。     

社会工作场域中的性别隔离

社会工作场域中存在明显的性别隔离,主要体现在职业和岗位两个层次上。照顾服务的女性化和社会工作作为照顾服务提供者的形象是导致职业性别隔离的重要原因,而男性权力在社会工作场域中的再生产则是导致岗位性别隔离的重要原因。社会工作场域中的性别隔离之所以值得关注,不仅因为它是一种隐蔽的性别不平等,而且因为这种不平等会妨碍社会工作推动性别平等的使命。为了消除性别隔离,笔者建议提升社会工作场域的性别意识;推动职业期望的去性别化,促进每个从业者的自我实现;重塑社会工作形象,吸引更多男性加入。     

中国性别理论研究综述

透视中国现代性别理论研究,其成果主要集中在对妇女历史的重构、造成女性从属性根源的探索、当代中国妇女地位变化研究、性别平等研究、方法论研究等五个方面。     

中国城乡居民教育获得的性别差异研究

一直以来,中国城乡居民教育获得的性别差异逐渐缩小,最近甚至开始出现女性超过男性的趋势。利用“2008年中国综合社会调查”（CGSS2008）数据,本研究探讨中国城乡居民教育获得性别不平等的变化趋势,并着重检验影响教育获得的各主要因素是否存在性别差异。研究发现：第一,性别不平等存在城乡差异,农村户口居民的性别不平等程度高于非农户口居民;第二,父亲的职业地位指数（ISEI）或父母的受教育水平越低,教育获得的性别不平等越严重;第三,兄弟姐妹人数越多的群体,教育获得的性别不平等越严重;最后,不同教育层次入学机会的性别不平等程度也不相同,教育层次越低,升学机会的性别不平等越严重。笔者认为上述教育获得的性别不平等模式来源于不同的社会群体对父权制观念或传统性别角色观念的认同感的差异。     

现阶段中国社会分化与性别分层

当代中国社会,自1978年改革开放以来,社会结构发生了重大变化.在这一社会结构转型的过程中,随着市场机制的发育,伴随着社会分化,性别因素、年龄因素、教育因素等与社会阶级阶层分化的相关性显著增长.在这一社会结构转型及社会阶层分化过程中,当代中国女性社会群体的社会经济地位状态,验证了曾被西方学者讨论过的工业化社会结构转型较普遍的两个命题:第一,在"女性地位机会增加"(第一个命题)的同时,两性社会经济地位差距在不断扩大;第二,不仅存在"女性地位分布的边缘化"(第二个命题)问题,同时出现了女性整体地位的弱势化问题.当代中国男女两性社会群体的社会经济地位差距是扩大了,还是缩小了?男女两性在社会资源分配中,是否获得了同等的地位机会?在社会地位上是否更加趋于平等?性别分化与社会阶层分化间的关系是怎样的?这些问题,在近些年来,已经引起中国社会分层研究者的关注,提出了性别分层的论题,对女性群体社会经济地位状态进行了一些初步的经验研究.     

反思与重构——对中国劳动性别分工研究的回顾

本文从国家性质对于劳动性别分工的意义、具有符号象征意义的家庭劳动分工与社会劳动分工的互动以及工业化过程中劳动性别分工变化的多种形态三个方面入手，对中国近20年来的妇女劳动或劳动性别分工研究进行了反思性的考察。在强调用劳动的性别分工代替原有的单纯对妇女劳动的研究，以及发展本土化的劳动性别研究的基础上，力图在中国特定的文化、经济和政治背景下找出一种适合自身的方法论。     

高等教育扩展与入学机会差异：1978～2003

自1978年中国高考制度恢复以来,社会阶层背景、本人职业位置、高中教育分流、城市等级、性别等因素对不同形式的高等教育入学机会的影响存在着较大差异;自1999年高等教育扩招以来,社会阶层背景的影响出现了两种截然不同的变化态势：优势阶层的教育投资趋向转向正规的大学本科,因而他们在大学本科教育方面的机会优势则出现成倍扩大。同时,受过良好教育的体力劳动者的子代在获得各类高等教育机会时均保持并继续扩大着较高的机会优势。本研究采用GSS2003 数据,分析技术为事件史的Cox 比例风险模型。     

企业性别多元化:兼顾效率与公平的契合点--以IBM为例的分析

性别多元化主要指:无论男女,所有的员工均应受到鼓励向一切可能的职业目标发展,享有平等的职业发展机会,而不受传统的社会性别角色的限制.由此,社会性别因素在员工的职业进入和职业发展过程中的负面影响逐渐降低,女性获得了更多平等的就业和职业发展机会.     

从社会性别的视角审视中国的性别立法与社会公共政策

作者将中国50年来性别立法与政策分为计划经济和计划经济向市场经济过度两个阶段,并用社会性别的视角从诸多方面描述和分析了中国的性别立法与公共政策。     

专业选择与初职获得的性别差异:基于“首都大学生成长追踪调查”的发现

高等教育的扩张大大缩小了两性受教育程度的差距,年轻一代的女性接受大学教育的比例甚至超过了男性。研究高等教育横向分层维度对理解劳动力市场的性别不平等尤为必要。基于“首都大学生成长追踪调查”数据,本研究从大学专业隔离的角度入手,分析大学毕业生初职获得的性别差异。分析发现,首都高校存在明显的专业性别隔离：女生更多地集中在文学、历史、艺术等专业,而男生更多地集中在理工科类专业。大学专业对毕业后个体能否进入男性主导职业具有显著影响。相较于男性,女性进入男性主导职业的概率更低,在控制了专业后,这一差异显著降低。非线性Blinder-Oaxaca分解结果进一步显示,若男女在专业分布上没有差异,不同性别群体进入男性主导职业的概率差异会减少40%～50%。该发现对理解城市高等教育水平劳动力市场中职业性别隔离现象的形成机制具有重要意义。     

Gender differences in labor market wages: A comparison of industrial sector effects and a decomposition within four occupations

Women earn less than men. The reason may be due to either industrial segmentation or occupational segregation or both according to the current research. Researches focusing on one structure tend to neglect the other or to use an inadequate representation. This article examines the simultaneous impact of industrial sector and gender on imputed wages with labor force incumbents in four detailed occupations. These occupations are from a set identified as relatively internally homogeneous on measures of task performed from the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Thus, within-occupational differences in work performed between males and females are minimized. The findings reinforce the importance of industrial sector for economic outcomes and demonstrate the value of an improved representation of occupation. The decomposition shows wage discrimination exists against females in each of these occupations, and in two sector-by-sector occupation comparisons, females should earn more than males.     

Market Transition and Gender Segregation in Urban China*

Objectives. This article analyzes the impact of the new form of economic segmentation, which emerged in urban China during the market transition, on gender segregation and earnings differentials. Methods. I compare both over‐time and across‐city change in gender segregation, and use a series of multi‐level cross‐classified models based on data at three levels: a 1995 national sample of individual workers, industry‐sector data for 1990 and 1995, and city‐level data for 1995. Results. Gender segregation by ownership sector has declined over time now that the state sector has become differentiated and its relative economic advantages wanes. Both earnings differentiation and gender segregation among industries have increased with marketization. In the most marketized cities, the earnings of workers of both sexes in jobs with high rates of female entry are penalized, indicating that marketization exacerbated the negative effect of job feminization on earnings. Conclusions. These findings lend support for the “queuing” perspective that a decline in jobs' relative wages leads to feminization. The making of the Chinese market economy has created a new set of institutional arrangements, which includes that between job feminization and wages.     

Is the long-term reduction in occupational sex segregation still continuing in the United States?

This research note uses comparable data on 13 broad occupational categories from the Current Population Survey to analyze changes in job segregation between men and women over the period 1972–2002. I find that the Sex Segregation Index declined by about 10 percentage points from 43.96% in 1972 to 34.10% in 2002. The long-term reduction in occupational sex segregation in the United States continued during the period 1993–2002. However, it did so at a slower pace than in the two previous decades. I also find that the pattern of changes in the sex composition of occupations and in the occupational structure that contributed to the decline in the Sex Segregation Index over the period 1972–2002 substantially shifted during the period 1993–2002. The sex composition effect represented about 65% of the reduction in segregation during the period 1972–1983 while it accounted for only about 25% during the period 1993–2002.     

收入如何影响中国夫妻的家务劳动分工？

在市场劳动领域的性别隔离程度快速下降的时代,是什么因素使得传统主义的家务劳动性别分工模式得以延续？既往研究将原因指向性别差异依旧明显的个人收入,但学界在收入对家务劳动分工的作用机制与作用方向上存在明显争议。通过对CGSS2012数据的考察发现：妻子对配偶经济依赖的下降会减少其家务劳动比例,二者关系不受个人及配偶绝对收入的影响;配偶绝对收入的加入使得经济依赖与丈夫家务劳动比例的联系从线性负相关关系转变为倒“U”型曲线关系。上述发现对于理解当代中国社会收入与劳动性别分工的关系提供了更为准确与具体的证据,并预示了一种不同于已有理论与经验研究的联系性机制与行动策略。     

College major choice, occupational structure and demographic patterning by gender, race and nativity

This paper asks whether and to what extent occupational segregation by gender, race/ethnicity and nativity at national level influences the patterning of individual college major choice. National Education Longitudinal Studies (NELS 1988-1994) provides college major information and the Public Use Micro data 1990 census 5% sample (PUMS 5%) provides occupational structure information, focusing on the demographic representation in broad occupational fields by gender, race and nativity. I match the occupational structure information from the PUMS data to the NELS data by group membership, after cross-classifying gender, race and nativity. This paper finds that the demographic group representations in technical and life/health science occupations at societal level have significant positive influence on choosing corresponding college major fields for students from the same groups. This may indicate that the seemingly individual choice of college major has deep structural roots at the societal level.     

Welfare Reform's Chilling Effects on Noncitizens: Changes in Noncitizen Welfare Recipiency or Shifts in Citizenship Status?*

Objective. In the mid‐1990s, welfare usage declined disproportionately among noncitizens, prompting some policy analysts to argue that the 1996 Welfare Reform Act (PRWORA) had a “chilling” effect on welfare receipt among eligible non‐citizens. However, naturalization among noncitizen welfare recipients could account for the disproportionate decline. This article evaluates the role of naturalizations in producing the so‐called chilling effect. Methods. The research uses longitudinal data (the Survey of Program Dynamics) to decompose changes in citizen and noncitizen welfare receipt into parts due to shifts in citizenship status and shifts in welfare receipt. Results. A substantial portion of the relative decline in welfare usage among noncitizens can be explained by shifts in naturalization. Conclusions. A more cautious interpretation of results about the effects of welfare reform on immigrants is called for, particularly results of analyses that use cross‐sectional data and disaggregate the change in welfare receipt by citizenship status.     

Do men leave feminizing occupations?

This article analyzes the 1970 and 1980 Public Use Samples of the decennial census and the 1983 Current Population Survey to determine if the degree of occupational feminization, i.e., the change in the percent female, affects men changing occupations. The results lend some support to the contention that men do not leave feminizing occupations. Men in occupations with the greatest increases in their percentage of female workers had the lowest percentage of men leaving their occupations. As the change in the percent female decreased, the percentage of men leaving the occupation increased. However, occupation was a critical factor in this relationship. While men from nonmanufacturing occupations followed a pattern similar to that found in the entire labor force (described above), men in manufacturing occupations left occupations that feminized the most. Men who changed occupations, in fact, often entered occupations that feminized. In the wake of these findings, I discuss how occupational sex segregation may be maintained.