社会性别的标准:女性气质与男性气质概念

正如过去 2 0年社会性别研究所显示的 ,人们无意识地拥有的社会性别观念是非常重要的 ,它们影响我们的态度、行为和自我感受。社会性别观念受社会和文化的引导 ,随着时间发生变化。本文介绍了 1 995年和 1 999年在荷兰学生中进行的社会性别分类的实验结果 ,从中可以看到在这5年中 ,当代的社会性别观念发生了哪些变化 ,展示了当今有关女性气质和男性气质的标准概念。本文还进一步讨论了近期所开展的性别研究 ,并提出与性别和工作、性别平等、性别与自尊 ,以及改变当今社会性别观念的需求相关的问题。在过去 2 0年 ,女性主义科学家和学者们曾…     

独立与权利：中美女性主义运动与性别平等观念比较研究

本文利用“世界价值观调查”的数据比较了20世纪末中美两国性别平等观念的差异后发现,两国性别平等观念的差异并不表现为平等化程度的高低,而是观念模式的不同,中国社会的分工平等意识强于美国,但权利平等意识弱于美国。本文认为,20世纪中后期的女性主义运动以性别平等为目标,对人们的性别平等观念有重要影响。中美性别平等观念模式的差异与两国女性主义运动所提出的共识框架不同有关。在此基础上,本文进一步比较了二者在动员机制上的差异及其对性别平等观念形成的影响。结果发现,那些在美国能够影响性别平等观念形成的微观机制在中国却难以发挥作用,这是因为,中国妇女解放运动能够借助于国家社会主义体制,将性别平等观念渗透到整个社会,而美国女权运动的动员却没有这样的优势,人们因此有较多的选择空间。     

中国城乡居民教育获得的性别差异研究

一直以来,中国城乡居民教育获得的性别差异逐渐缩小,最近甚至开始出现女性超过男性的趋势。利用“2008年中国综合社会调查”（CGSS2008）数据,本研究探讨中国城乡居民教育获得性别不平等的变化趋势,并着重检验影响教育获得的各主要因素是否存在性别差异。研究发现：第一,性别不平等存在城乡差异,农村户口居民的性别不平等程度高于非农户口居民;第二,父亲的职业地位指数（ISEI）或父母的受教育水平越低,教育获得的性别不平等越严重;第三,兄弟姐妹人数越多的群体,教育获得的性别不平等越严重;最后,不同教育层次入学机会的性别不平等程度也不相同,教育层次越低,升学机会的性别不平等越严重。笔者认为上述教育获得的性别不平等模式来源于不同的社会群体对父权制观念或传统性别角色观念的认同感的差异。     

双薪家庭的家务性别分工：经济依赖、性别观念或情感表达

基于２０１０年第三期中国妇女地位调查数据的分析显示,城镇家庭的家务劳动分工具有“女性为主,男性为辅”的特征。研究表明,经济依赖关系、工作时间、性别角色观念均显著地影响着两性的家务分工,但其影响机制存在差别。对于男性而言,经济上的独立与成就对于其家务劳动投入的影响最大,其次是工作时间与性别角色观念,这些要素均相对独立地发挥作用,男性家务劳动的承担不存在“性别表演”。对于女性而言,纯粹的经济独立（对配偶收入的依赖程度、本人的绝对收入状况等）并非其家务劳动投入的最好预测,性别角色观念也不独立地对家务劳动参与产生影响。部分女性的家务劳动在经济依赖与性别角色观念交互影响下存在着形态与效应各异的“性别表演”。这一特征揭示了两性在劳动力市场中的经济地位与社会文化期待交互影响的形塑作用。     

社会性别视角下农村老年人再婚的性别差异分析—基于河北省农村地区的调查

农村老年人再婚呈现出一定的性别差异，在田野调查的基础上，发展农村丧偶老年男性比女性表现出更强的再婚愿望。丧偶男性比丧偶女性再支付更高的成本。这与社会性别文化中女性的依附性地位以及传统伦理规范的制约有着密切的联系。     

从性别的视角看美国的中国学研究

19世纪以来 ,美国女性中国学家不仅人数比例逐步上升 ,学术地位也逐步提高 ,已成为一支不可忽视的力量。随着世界对女性问题重视程度的增强 ,美国中国学家对女性问题的关注也有所增加。女性研究在美国中国学研究中已经争取到一席之地 ,并呈现出人文学科与社会科学学科的研究并重 ,对历史问题的研究与对现当代问题的研究并重 ,研究范围日益广泛和将女性研究向性别研究扩展的趋势。     

网络空间性别不平等的再生产:互联网工资溢价效应的性别差异——以第三期妇女地位调查为例

本文通过倾向值匹配的方法发现：在控制了其他因素之后,互联网使用者的平均工资收入是非使用者的1.38倍;同时,互联网溢价效应存在着显著的性别差异,女性的互联网工资溢价为男性互联网工资溢价的90.6%。此外,本文发现,互联网工资溢价效应与人们的网络行为密切相关。男性相比女性,具有更强烈的使用互联网资源进行再学习和人力资本再积累的偏好;在女性互联网使用者之间,性别观念更平等的女性具有更强烈的使用互联网资源进行再学习和人力资本再积累的偏好。在传统的网络空间性别不平等的研究框架下,本文着重于探析性别文化观念如何影响人们对互联网的使用偏好和使用方式,从而成为导致网络空间性别不平等的再生产的重要原因和机制。     

社会分层与健康不平等的性别差异:基于生命历程的纵向分析

本研究考察在社会分层与性别分层的交互作用下,生命历程中的两个竞争性理论--“累积优势/劣势理论”和“年龄中和效应理论”,哪一个更能解释中国男性和女性所经历的健康不平等。本研究利用“中国健康与营养调查”（CHNS）追踪数据和成长曲线模型发现,性别对社会分层导致的健康不平等及其发展有独特的影响。与男性相比,女性在各个年龄阶段都处于健康劣势,这一劣势是因为女性从教育和收入所获得的健康回报比男性低。此外,女性之间因为教育和收入导致的健康不平等程度随年龄的增长而缩小,男性之间的健康不平等程度并不随年龄的增长而改变,因此,本研究不支持健康不平等的“累积优势/劣势假说”,而是在女性群体中支持“年龄中和效应理论”。     

女性性问题研究的社会性别视角

文章分析了目前中国性学研究中女性声音和女性主义视角缺席的原因 ,指出把社会性别分析方法引入性问题研究的必要性 ;并分别从男性性观念和女性性观念的表现出发 ,分析了传统文化的双重性道德标准对女性的歧视、压力和损害 ;通过对女性性主体地位、经期性交、女性G点研究、性交中的不应期等话题的讨论 ,揭示了与女性有关的性学理论中的社会性别视角。     

专业选择与初职获得的性别差异:基于“首都大学生成长追踪调查”的发现

高等教育的扩张大大缩小了两性受教育程度的差距,年轻一代的女性接受大学教育的比例甚至超过了男性。研究高等教育横向分层维度对理解劳动力市场的性别不平等尤为必要。基于“首都大学生成长追踪调查”数据,本研究从大学专业隔离的角度入手,分析大学毕业生初职获得的性别差异。分析发现,首都高校存在明显的专业性别隔离：女生更多地集中在文学、历史、艺术等专业,而男生更多地集中在理工科类专业。大学专业对毕业后个体能否进入男性主导职业具有显著影响。相较于男性,女性进入男性主导职业的概率更低,在控制了专业后,这一差异显著降低。非线性Blinder-Oaxaca分解结果进一步显示,若男女在专业分布上没有差异,不同性别群体进入男性主导职业的概率差异会减少40%～50%。该发现对理解城市高等教育水平劳动力市场中职业性别隔离现象的形成机制具有重要意义。     

Adolescents' Time Use and Academic Achievement: A Test of the Reproduction and Mobility Models*

Objectives. Following up on Bourdieu's (1973) model of reproduction and DiMaggio's (1982) model of mobility, I determine whether there are socioeconomic differences in the academic benefits provided by adolescents' use of free time. Methods. I analyze the associations that students' uses of time have with mathematics achievement test scores and grade point averages, using data from the Educational Longitudinal Study of 2002 and OLS regression models. Results. Time spent on school‐sponsored activities is associated with improved math test scores, while time spent on social activities is negatively associated with them. School activities are more beneficial for students in the bottom SES quartile than in the top two SES quartiles. Conclusions. Limited support is found for the mobility model; however, lower‐SES students are more likely to engage in activities such as television watching and videogame playing that are associated with lower test scores and grades, and higher‐SES students are more likely to participate in beneficial school‐sponsored activities.     

Gender, Ethnicity, and Power

Group-based power is generally associated with three types of group distinctions: adult-child, gender, and ethnicity. We argue that gender-based power is not comparable to ethnic-based power, in part because the forms and degree of institutional discrimination experienced by men and women of subordinate ethnic groups are not similar to one another, and in part because stereotypes and categorization processes pertaining to gender are not comparable across ethnic groups. Finally, in experiments using college students as participants, we show that whether applicants are placed into occupations that would enhance or attenuate group-based inequality depends jointly on job applicants' ethnicity and gender. Implications for theories of inequality based on gender and ethnicity and the relationship of gendered power to other group-based forms of power are discussed.     

Students' of Color and European American Students' Stigma-Relevant Perceptions of University Instructors

In classrooms students of color may experience stigma (i.e., concern about being stereotyped) because negative stereotypes of their intellect are salient. Two studies included African American, European American, and Latina/Latino female and male undergraduates. Study 1 ( n = 86) demonstrated while students of color generally had positive expectations of teachers, their expectations declined when imagining class with a European American instructor who would repeatedly versus never evaluate their work or an ethnically matched instructor across conditions. Study 2 ( n = 136) revealed all students had more positive expectations of culturally tolerant versus culturally intolerant instructors. Students of color more than European American students perceived that intolerant instructors could grade them unfairly. We discuss implications for ethnically diverse classrooms .     

Anything women can do men can do better: An experiment examining the effects of stereotype threat on political knowledge and efficacy

Negative stereotypes have been shown to create cognitive burdens that decrease intellectual performance in a number of tasks such as math and standardized tests. Applying a multidisciplinary approach and an experimental research design, this paper examines the effect of stereotype threat on political knowledge and political efficacy. A sample of 226 undergraduate students completed an online survey on political knowledge and efficacy. Participants were randomly assigned to a stereotype threat condition or a non-threat condition. Contrary to what was hypothesized, stereotype threat does not explain the political knowledge gap between men and women; men score significantly higher than women in both conditions. However, preliminary evidence suggests the presence of stereotype lift in men's sense of political efficacy. Men's political efficacy demonstrates a moderate increase in the stereotype threat condition while women's sense of efficacy does not change (d = .53).     

学校环境与学生成绩的性别差异

近几十年来,随着女生受教育权利越来越得到重视,男女生在受教育机会方面趋于平等,但学校中却出现了男生平均成绩相比女生普遍偏低的现象,学生学习成绩的性别差异越来越明显。本文采用学校固定效应模型,分析不同的班级环境对学生学习成绩造成的影响及其性别差异。研究结果显示,男生学习成绩落后的现象多存在于学习环境相对较差的学校。进一步加入中间变量,初步探析其形成机制后发现,在较差的学校中,男生容易在同伴群体中形成反学校的认知、态度和行为,女生则较少受到这种影响,因而容易造成学习成绩上的性别差异。     

School Readiness of Children of Immigrants: Does Parental Involvement Play a Role?*

Objectives. Using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey—Kindergarten Cohort, this article analyzes the link between parental involvement and the school readiness of children of immigrants. Methods. Multivariate regression models estimate the association between parental involvement and the school readiness in English proficiency and math scores of children of immigrants. They also estimate the impact of this association on the gap in math scores between children of immigrants and children of natives. Results. Results demonstrate that parental involvement is associated with an increase in the level of English proficiency for children of immigrants. Parental involvement also is associated with a decrease in the gap in math scores between immigrant children from English‐ and non‐English‐speaking backgrounds. Parental involvement decreases the gap in math scores between children of immigrants and children of the native born by a third of a standard deviation. Conclusion. Given that parental involvement appears to benefit children of immigrants and given that they have lower academic achievement than children of the native born, these findings suggest that parental involvement policies and practices targeting children of immigrants could help decrease the academic achievement gap between children of immigrants and children of the native born.     

Shifting Standards and the Evaluation of Competence: Complexity in Gender-Based Judgment and Decision Making

Gender stereotypes regarding task competence may lead perceivers to set different standards for diagnosing competence in women versus men. Specifically, stereotypes may prompt lower minimum standards (or initial screening criteria) but higher confirmatory standards for women than men (Biernat & Kobrynowicz, 1997). In two studies simulating hiring decisions, predictions were that women would be (1) more likely than men to make a short list for a job but (2) less likely than men to be hired for the same job. Results were generally consistent with predictions only among female participants (Studies 1 and 2), among those exposed to a female experimenter (Study 1), and among those held accountable for their decisions (Study 2). The role of motivational factors in the setting of standards is discussed.     

Contextual Variation in Stereotype Content: An Investigation of Children's Central Tendency and Group Variability Judgements

Drawing upon self‐categorization theory, we predicted that the content of children's stereotypes concerning the gender ingroup would be contextually variable. Two studies are reported, each looking at five‐, seven‐, and 10‐year‐old children's stereotypes of the gender in‐group in two different contexts. Study 1 examined judgements of the perceived central tendency of the in‐group on specified dimensions. Study 2 addressed judgements of perceived variability within the gender in‐group on the same dimensions. Overall multivariate analysis of the data indicated that central tendency judgements were influenced by the context in which a group is considered, but that group variability judgements were not. Individual‐level analyses showed that the most typical pattern of response over the two conditions, in both Studies 1 and 2, was for children to provide consistent rather than varying judgements. However, in Study 1 (but not Study 2 ), among those children who changed their judgements, the nature of change was precisely as predicted by self‐categorization theory.     

Immigration from Mexico into the Math/Science Pipeline in American Education*

Objectives. The purpose of this study was to explore generational differences in math/science enrollment and achievement among Mexican‐American students and the role of family and school contexts in these differences. Methods. We applied survey regression techniques to data from 12,020 adolescents in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Results. Native‐born Mexican‐American students had lower math/science enrollment than their peers, especially after differences in family and school contexts were taken into account. Mexican‐American immigrants had lower achievement when enrolled in such classes, but this was explained by their greater level of family and school disadvantages. Conclusions. Persistence and success in the math/science pipeline, a mechanism of social mobility in the modern economy, would likely be enhanced in the fast‐growing population of Mexican‐American students by improvements in family resources and school organization.     

Depictions of Public Service in Children's Literature: Revisiting an Understudied Aspect of Political Socialization

Objective . Scholars who have investigated depictions of public service in children's literature have come to a mix of conclusions regarding the portrayal of public figures in children's literature. We revisit these studies, attempting to answer the question of how public servants are portrayed in children's literature. Methods . We perform content analysis of 93 books and examine 868 characters for benevolence and competence. Results . We find that public servants are portrayed as no more incompetent or malevolent than other adults in children's literature. On a few dimensions, we find just the opposite. Furthermore, we find that women in general are portrayed as more benevolent than men, although the same patterns are not found between sexes when examining only those in the public service. Conclusions . If children are developing negative stereotypes of government officials and institutions, these stereotypes do not appear to be formed through their reading of children's literature.